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Hints  on  How  to  Teach  the 
Frye  Geographies 


F.   R.   HATHAWAY 

sri'MKINTENlJl£XT    OF    SCHOOLS,    OKANI)    RAPIDS,    MICHIGAN 


nosTox,  T.S.A. 

CIXX   «i-   COMPANY,    PUBLISHERS 
QTbc  Stbcnrcttm 

1900 


COPYRIGHT,   1900 
BY  GINN    &   COMPANY 


AM.    KK1MTS    KKM-'KVED 


P  R  K  F  A  C  E . 


THIS  booklet  is  not  intended  for  a  teachers'  manual, 
but  rather  as  a  means  whereby  teachers  may  be  put 
in  sympathy  with  the  author  of  the  Frye  Geographies. 
The  difficulty  of  such  an  undertaking  is  fully  realized, 
for  the  writer  has  never  had  the  pleasure  of  listening 
to  Mr.  Frye.  His  conclusions  are  therefore  those 
which  come  to  him  as  a  result  of  carefully  studying 
these  text-books.  It  is  quite  possible  that  in  trying 
to  explain  the  underlying  principles  of  Frye's  Geog- 
raphies there  may  be  a  little  light  thrown  upon  what 
some  persons  are  pleased  to  call  "the  new  Geography." 

The  following  pages  comprise  in  a  condensed  form 
the  series  of  geography  talks  given  by  the  writer  to 
the  teachers  of  Grand  Rapids  during  the  winter  of 
1898—99,  and  are  published  at  the  request  of  several 
teachers  who  listened  to  those  talks. 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  FRYE  GEOGRAPHIES. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE   FOUNDATION   PRINCIPLE. 

/  -2  7  4  7 
WHEN  a  person  puts  forth  a  book  it  is  safe  to  say 

that  he  has,  or  thinks  he  has,  at  least  one  idea  which 
lie  wishes  to  lay  before  his  readers.  Unless  he  has 
such  a  message  he  should  for  the  sake  of  humanity 
remain  silent.  In  case  the  person  is  the  author  of  a 
text-book,  his  new  idea  will,  in  all  probability,  be  merely 
a  new  method  which  he  wishes  to  introduce  into  the 
schools  of  the  country.  The  subject-matter  of  the 
book  may  be  as  old  as  truth  ;  the  only  new  feature 
may  be  its  method  of  presentation.  This  second  aim 
of  an  author  is  not  to  be  deprecated  ;  in  fact,  in  many 
lines  of  school  work  the  chief  question  is,  "How  to 
present  a  truth,"  not  "  What  is  the  truth  ?  "  The 
latter  may  have  long  since  passed  into  the  category  of 
undisputed  facts  ;  the  former  may  be  a  point  around 
which  still  centers  many  a  battle  of  opinion. 

If  we  who  are  teachers  will  think  back  to  the  time 
when  we  were  students  in  school,  \ve  shall  remember 
that  the  geography  taught  us  was  merely  the  geography 
of  location.  Lessons  were  assigned  us  by  the  inch  ;  if 


2  How  to  Teach  tlic  Fiyc  Geographies. 

the  questions  were  short  and  numerous,  the  teacher 
gave  us  two  inches  and  a  half  per  day  ;  if  they  were 
longer,  we  took  three  inches  and  a  half,  and  if  the 
printer  had  by  chance  leaded  the  lines,  the  teacher 
lengthened  our  lessons  proportionally,  giving  us  possi- 
bly five  or  six  inches.  When  the  recitation  time  came 
these  questions  were  asked  us  in  definite  order  and  we 
were  expected  to  answer  each  in  turn.  Looking  back 
at  such  a  drill,  we  must  confess  that  but  two  benefits 
were  derived  —  we  learned  the  location  of  many  places 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  memory  was  trained. 
In  the  absence  of  other  exercise,  the  remaining  powers 
of  the  mind  would  have  atrophied. 

Following  this  method  of  teaching  geography  there 

O  O       O  O          1         j 

came  another,  which  we  may  dub  "the  straight  line 
method."  It  propounded  such  questions  as  :  "In  trav- 
eling from  New  York  to  Chicago,  along  what  parallel 
would  you  journey ;  through  what  cities  would  you 
pass  ;  across  what  states  would  you  move  ?  "  Possibly 
this  method  had  its  value,  but  ;is  the  gcnns  homo  never 
thus  moves  in  straight  lines,  his  offspring  rebelled  at 
being  forever  considered  birds  of  passage,  and  crows 
at  that. 

Method  number  two  had  its  day,  and  teachers  began 
to  wonder  if  it  were  not  possible  to  devise  some  plan 
to  interest  children  in  a  subject  which  thus  far  had 
been  the  most  uninteresting  in  the  school  curriculum. 
Some  one  hit  upon  the  "journey  method,"  and  teachers 
and  children  made  zigzag  tours  over  the  entire  face  of 
the  earth.  This  plan  had  at  least  the  defect  of  being 
somewhat  rambling.  Interest  had  been  aroused,  but 


TJic  Foundation  Principle.  3 

even  the  child's  imagination  ultimately  revolted  against 
forever  making  believe  and  never  actually  performing. 

Finally  an  author,  Tilden,  impressed  with  the  impor- 
tance of  the  business  relations  of  the  world,  gave  us  a 
text-book  whose  underlying  principle  is:  "the  com- 
mercial relations  man  bears  to  man."  This  book, 
though  marking  a  decided  advance,  left  out  of  consid- 
eration the  causal  relations  existing  between  physical 
forces  and  human  occupations.  Moreover,  the  book 
does  not  profess  to  be  adapted  to  beginners.  It  is 
only  a  text  for  advanced  grammar  grade  pupils. 

From  time  to  time  authors  wrote  so-called  "  Physical 
Geographies,"  whose  place  was  distinctly  marked  as 
belonging  to  the  high-school  department.  These  books 
leaned  heavily  toward  geology,  and  served  to  give  many 
boys  and  girls  the  only  glimpse  they  ever  received  into 
that  wonderful  story  which  the  hand  of  God  has  written 
in  the  structure  of  the  earth. 

The  time  was  ripe  for  a  change  —  a  clean-cut,  well- 
marked  and  decisive  transition.  Mr.  Alexis  K.  Frye 
finally  gave  to  the  pupils  of  the  grammar  school  his 
Primary  and  Complete  Geographies,  the  underlying 
principle  of  which  is  that 

77/r  I'ilal  geography,  political  geography  and  com- 
mercial geography  of  tJic  world  grow  out  of  and  arc 
dependent  upon  the  physical  geography  of  tlic  world. 

True,  this  was  not  a  new  thought.  Ilumboldt  had 
long  since  shown  the  operation  of  physical  forces  in 
shaping  the  surface  of  the  earth  for  the  abode  of  man  ; 
Darwin  had  demonstrated  the  effect  of  those  forces 
upon  the  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  Buckle  had 


4  Hoic  to  TcacJi  the  Fryc  Geographies. 

proved  that  those  same  forces  exercised  a  determining 
factor  upon  the  political  and  social  relations  of  man- 
kind. Still  these  and  a  host  of  other  authors  had 
written  books  found  simply  upon  library  shelves  and 
adapted  to  mature  minds.  Air.  Frye  grasped  this 
central  thought  and  placed  it  before  the  children  of 
America  in  a  common  school  geography. 

Air.  F rye's  geographies  are  not  only  unique  as  gram- 
mar school  texts  in  the  underlying  principle  involved, 
but  also  in  the  manner  in  which  that  principle  is 
taught.  Teachers  who  use  these  books  in  the  way 
they  are  intended  to  be  used  do  not  develop  simply  the 
power  of  memory.  Those  who  study  the  books  aright 
must  compare  concepts,  and  thereby  train  judgment  ; 
must  compare  and  combine  propositions,  and  thereby 
develop  the  ability  to  reason.  Knowing  certain  general 
laws,  pupils  learn  to  determine  for  themselves  the  lead- 
ing characteristics  of  any  given  locality.  This  method 
of  work  is  the  essential  feature  of  the  so-called  "new 
geography." 

Not  understanding  the  underlying  principle  in  Frye's 
"Geography,"  or  the  method  of  attack,  si.me  teachers 
meet  with  little  success  in  trying  to  use  the  books. 
At  first  they  are  very  much  interested,  the  book  being 
so  novel.  When  this  interest  wears  off,  such  teachers 
complain  that  the  books  are  apparently  without  that 
which  Professor  Hinsdale  so  aptly  calls  "necessary 
handles."  They  then  push  aimlessl}'  along,  without 
grasping  the  principles,  teaching  their  children  by 
sheer  memory  many  things  about  geography,  but  very 
little  real  geography. 


The  Inundation  Pri)idplc.  5 

What  foundation  has  Mr.  Frye  for  maintaining  that 
the  vital  geography,  political  geography  and  commercial 
geography  of  the  world  grow  out  of  and  are  dependent 
upon  the  physical  geography  of  the  world  ? 

Consider  the  question  of  boundary  lines.  There  are 
two  kinds  —  natural  and  artificial.  History  shows  that 
the  former  are  permanent,  the  latter  temporary.  France 
and  Spain  have  been  at  war  time  and  time  again. 
\Yhencver  they  have  settled  their  difficulties  and  estab- 
lished a  treaty  of  peace,  the  Pyrenees  mountains  have 
stood  as  the  line  separating  the  two  countries.  Eng- 
land  and  France  have  repeatedly  met  in  death  struggle. 
With  one  single  exception,  in  the  treaties  of  peace 
which  closed  those  struggles,  the  English  channel 
remained  the  boundary  line.  This  exception  proved  to 
be  but  a  temporary  adjustment  of  the  difficulties,  and 
slowly  the  artificial  boundary  was  pushed  northward 
until  it  coincided  with  the  natural  one.  One  other 
nation  has  often  engaged  France  in  war.  No  natural 
boundary  separates  this  country,  Germany,  from  France; 
consequently  when  the  treaties  of  peace  have  been 
established,  settling  their  difficulties,  the  boundary  lines 
have  been  pushed  back  and  forth,  leaving  continually 
an  area  of  contention  between  the  two  countries.  To 
the  northeast  of  Prussia  once  la}'  a  little  country, 
Poland,  separated  from  the  adjoining  countries  by  no 
natural  boundary  lines.  The  time  came  when  those 
countries  united  for  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  the 
little  kingdom  was  swept  from  the  map  of  the  earth. 
Not  so  with  Switzerland,  situated  in  the  heart  of 
Europe,  but  hemmed  in  by  a  natural  boundary  of 


6  II me  to  Teach  tlic  Fryc  Geographies. 

mountains.  It  has  stood  intact  for  centuries.  On 
every  side  nations  have  risen,  flourished  and  decayed  ; 
still  Switzerland  remains  ;  even  though  its  form  of 
government  is  a  standing  menace  to  the  monarchies 
of  Europe. 

Not  only  are  the  pages  of  modern  history  replete 
with  illustrations  of  the  question  involved,  but  the 
records  of  ancient  nations  give  abundant  illustration  of 
the  same  truth.  Scarcely  a  state  in  old  Greece  but 
had  its  boundaries  marked  in  the  configuration  of  the 
earth.  For  years  the  Alps  served  as  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  even  when  the  legions 
of  Rome  carried  her  eagles  beyond  that  snow-capped 
range,  the  same  mountains  remained  as  before  the 
barrier  which  separated  the  Roman  citizens  from  the 
barbarians.  As  long  as  the  Roman  empire  retained 
the  Danube  with  its  mountainous  southern  bank  as  its 
northeastern  boundary  it  was  safe,  even  though  the 
wild  hordes  of  Huns  thronged  the  plains  of  Russia. 
But  when  her  officers,  false  to  their  trust,  granted 
those  Huns  the  privilege  of  crossing  that  natural 
boundary,  nothing  could  stay  their  onward  march 
toward  the  Imperial  City. 

The  Roman  soldiers  pushed  the  native  Britons  back 
from  the  fertile  plains  of  southeastern  England  until 
those  Britons  took  lodgment  within  the  mountain  fast- 
nesses of  Wales  and  Scotland.  Then,  in  seeming 
imitation  of  Nature,  they  built  a  wall  to  serve  as 
the  northern  boundary  of  Britain,  hoping  thereby  to 
keep  the  Picts  and  Scots  from  invading  the  country. 
Similarly,  in  times  long  ago,  the  founders  of  the 


The  Foundation  Principle.  7 

Chinese  empire  raised  a  wall  which  should  serve  to 
protect  them  from  their  enemies  on  the  north.  This 
same  general  truth  finds  abundant  negative  illustration 
in  the  history  of  the  New  World.  Five  European 
nations  originally  laid  claim  to  North  America.  Why 
have  these  titles  been  extinguished  ?  Not  merely 
because  the  English  race  is  the  strongest,  but  rather 
because  Nature  had  fashioned  a  continent  in  which 
there  are  few  natural  boundary  lines.  The  two  remain- 
ing artificial  boundary  lines  are  rapidly  being  obliter- 
ated by  commercial  treaties,  all  tending  toward  the 
amalgamation  of  the  great  American  continent  into 
one  mighty  nation. 

Not  only  have  natural  boundaries  separated  nations, 
but  they  have  also  served  to  keep  separate  and  distinct 
the  peoples  who  have  lived  upon  opposite  sides  of  those 
boundaries.  The  people  of  Transalpine  and  Cisalpine 
Gaul  never  coalesced.  The  Spaniards  and  Erench  liv- 
ing on  opposite  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees  mountains  have 
preserved  their  individuality.  Though  the  Swiss  live 
but  a  few  miles  from  the  Germans,  they  are  distinct 
peoples.  The  Erench  and  English  have  entirely  differ- 
ent traits.  The  tribes  living  on  the  southern  slopes  of 
the  Caucasus  mountains  are  so  different  from  those 
living  upon  the  northern  slopes  of  the  same  mountains 
that  they  are  easily  distinguished  as  belonging  to 
separate  races. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  effect  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion upon  natural  boundaries.  Every  railroad  which 
winds  its  way  over  the  mountain  pass,  or  plunges 
through  a  dark  tunnel  ;  every  telegraph  line  which 


Hoiu  to  TcacJt  tlic  Frye  Geographies. 

flashes  its  messages  over  the  mountains  or  under  the 
sea;  every  steamship  which  carries  its  precious  freight 
from  country  to  country  serves  to  break  down  natural 
boundaries  and  hasten  the  advent  of  "The  parliament 
of  man,  the  federation  of  the  world."  Modern  engi- 
neering has  given  man  that  faith  which  enables  him  to 
say  to  the  mountain,  "Be  thou  removed,"  and  behold 
it  is  cast  into  the  sea. 

From  the  time  when  Eeonidas  marshaled  his  Spar- 
tan band  in  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  to  the  time  when 
the  high  tide  of  the  southern  confederacy  broke  upon 
the  crest  of  Mission  Ridge,  the  god  of  battles  has 
inhabited  some  Olympian  height  and  decided  the  for- 
tunes of  war  and  the  fate  of  nations  along  the  natural 
boundaries  which  have  separated  countries.  Of  more 
importance  to  England  than  her  entire  army  was  the 
English  channel  when  Napoleon  saw  nothing  but  that 
narrow  strip  of  water  between  himself  and  world  empire. 
No  student  of  history  can  study  the  decisive  battles  of 
the  world,  or  the  campaigns  of  great  captains,  without 
being  impressed  with  the  important  fact  that  the  con- 
figuration of  the  earth  has  been  a  mighty  factor  in 
determining  the  results  of  such  conflicts. 

What  then  would  Erye  have  the  student  see  in 
studying  the  boundaries  of  a  country  ?  Not  merely 
the  location  of  those  boundary  lines,  but  whether  they 
are  natural  or  artificial ;  permanent  or  temporary ; 
what  their  effect  has  been  upon  the  nation's  life;  how 
they  have  separated  or  failed  to  separate  adjoining  peo- 
ples ;  how  they  have  been  a  means  of  defense  in  time 
of  war  or  a  highway  of  commerce  in  time  of  peace. 


TJic  Foundation  Principle.  9 

For  years  teachers  have  recognized  in  a  general  way 
the  effect  of  climate  upon  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
They  have  called  attention  to  the  facts  that  the  most 
luxuriant  vegetation  grows  in  the  tropics  ;  that  decid- 
uous trees  are  found  in  the  temperate  regions  ;  that  as 
one  approaches  the  poles  vegetation  is  more  stunted, 
finally  disappearing  entirely  ;  that  animals  living  in  the 
cold  regions  are  abundantly  supplied  with  a  warm  cov- 
ering ;  that  those  found  in  the  tropics  are  usually 
larger  and  more  ferocious  ;  that  the  temperature  of  the 
torrid  zone  tends  to  enervate  the  people  who  live  in 
that  region  ;  that  the  temperature  of  the  frigid  zone 
necessitates  such  a  struggle  for  existence,  that  people 
in  those  localities  have  no  opportunity  for  intellectual 
advancement,  and  that  only  in  the  temperate  regions 
does  man  reach  his  fullest  development  and  establish 
the  highest  type  of  civilization.  It  remained,  however, 
for  Frye  to  write  a  geography  series  in  which  there 
should  be  placed  before  the  school  children  the  great 
thought  that  the  animal  and  vegetable  life  native  to 
any  given  region  are  determined  largely  by  the  physical 
geography  of  that  locality  ;  and  that  the  forms  of  such 
life  which  man  can  introduce  in  any  given  region  are 
also  determined  by  the  physical  geography  of  that 
locality.  Moreover,  this  same  general  truth  obtains 
not  only  with  reference  to  the  lower  forms  of  life,  but 
also  to  man  himself,  except  in  so  far  as  he  can  adapt 
himself  to  a  greater  variety  of  environment.  To  illus- 
trate :  The  westerly  winds  blowing  from  the  Pacific 
upon  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States  climb 
successively  three  ranges  of  mountains,  each  higher 


io  How  to  TcacJi  the  Frye  Geographies. 

than  the  preceding  ;  then  blow  clown  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Rockies,  deprived  of  their  moisture.  The  plains 
lying  at  the  foothills  of  these  mountains  have,  conse- 
quently, little  rainfall.  The  only  form  of  vegetation 
which  could  thrive  is  the  bunch-grass.  The  native 
animal  life  must,  therefore,- be  such  as  could  depend 
upon  this  bunch-grass  for  food.  This  was  the  home 
of  the  buffalo.  These  animals  roamed  over  the  plains 
in  vast  herds,  cropping  the  grass  short,  then  moving 
on  to  fresh  pastures.  When  advancing  civilization 
drove  the  buffalo  from  his  native  plains,  man  supplied 
his  place  with  the  only  kind  of  animals  which  could 
thrive  upon  that  vegetation  which  had  nourished  the 
buffalo.  Great  herds  of  cattle  are  now  pastured  upon 
these  plains  and  are  driven  from  place  to  place  as 
necessity  demands. 

Compare  the  valley  of  California  with  the  so-called 
Great  American  desert.  They  lie  in  the  same  latitude, 
are  but  a  few  miles  apart  and  have  a  like  soil  —  the 
rock  waste  of  adjacent  mountains.  Why  is  the  one  a 
garden  spot,  the  other  an  arid  waste  ?  Why  has  one 
become  the  seat  of  a  thriving  population,  the  other 
remained  the  home  of  roving  bands  of  Indians  ?  Sim- 
ply because  one  is  well  watered,  while  upon  the  other 
region  scarcely  any  rain  falls.  I  Vat  why  this  difference 
in  the  amount  of  rain  ?  Surely  it  is  not  chance.  Fixed 
laws  must  govern  this  phenomenon  just  as  surely  as 
they  govern  the  movements  of  the  .planets.  Knowing 
these  laws  and  the  relief  forms  of  the  two  localities 
in  question,  the  student  is  able  to  predicate  the  native 
life  of  those  regions,  even  though  he  has  never  read  a 


TJic  Foundation  Principle.  1 1 

description  of  cither.  Advancing  a  step  farther  toward 
his  final  conclusion,  he  determines  why  Nature  makes 
one  locality  fitted  for  a  great  state,  while  man  must 
supplement  by  irrigation  the  lack  of  rainfall  before  the 
other  can  be  reclaimed  for  civilization.  Apply  the 
same  general  principles  in  comparing  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon  with  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  The  physical 
geography  of  the  northern  parts  of  Africa  and  South 
America  alone  accounts  for  the  dissimilarity.  The 
leading  points  of  difference  can  be  determined  by  the 
student  from  the  study  of  the  map  without  memorizing 
a  word  of  the  text.  It  is  this  power  of  reasoning  out 
the  necessary,  native  life  of  any  given  locality  that 
Air.  Frye  would  develop  in  the  pupils. 

The  more  advanced  student  can  apply  the  principle 
in  question  to  the  determination  of  the  seats  of  empire. 
It  is  a  noticeable  fact  not  only  that  every  ancient  civili- 
zation was  located  in  a  fertile  region,  but  that  some 
indigenous  food  grew  luxuriantly  in  that  locality.  India 
had  its  rice,  which  yielded  sixty  fold;  Egypt  its  date, 
which  yielded  an  hundred  fold  ;  Mexico  its  maize  and 
banana,  which  yielded  abundantly  ;  and  Peru  its  potatoes, 
which  furnished  ample  food  for  the  vast  population. 
When  civilization  advanced  and  spread  into  the  less 
fertile  regions  of  the  world,  transportation  became 
more  and  more  a  business  enterprise.  As  the  means 
of  transportation  improved,  localities  were  obliged  to 
depend  less  and  less  upon  their  own  products.  In 
these  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  steam 
and  electricity  have  brought  to  one  table  the  products 
of  all  regions  of  the  earth.  Man's  power  to  adapt 


1 2  How  to  TeacJi  the  Frye  Geographies. 

himself  to  his  environment,  assisted  in  a  great  measure 
by  the  improved  means  of  transportation,  is  splendidly 
illustrated  by  the  settlements  among  the  niter  beds  of 
Chili  and  the  gold  fields  of  Alaska.  In  the  former 
locality  rainfall  is  unknown  and  the  heat  intense;  in 
the  latter  snow  is  abundant  and  the  cold  intense.  In 
both  places  vegetation  is  reduced  to  the  minimum. 
Nature  has  done  much  to  make  these  localities  unin- 
habitable. Man  has,  however,  taken  up  his  abode  in 
these  inhospitable  corners  of  the  earth  and  depends  for 
his  sustenance  upon  a  food  supply  brought  thousands 
of  miles  from  the  fertile  fields  of  the  temperate  regions. 
Such  apparent  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  are  but 
genuine  illustrations  of  the  working  out  of  the  real 

o  o 

principle  involved  ;  namely,  the  law  of  adaption. 

In  general,  commercial  enterprise  is  manifested  along 
the  lines  of  agriculture,  manufacturing,  mining  and 
commerce.  What  effect  has  the  physical  geography  of 
the  world  upon  these  forms  of  human  activity  ? 

The  prime  requisite  for  an  agricultural  region  is  a 
fertile  soil.  From  what  is  such  a  soil  made?  How  is 
it  made  ?  How  has  it  been  transported  ?  Every  one 
of  these  questions  belongs  to  the  realm  of  physical 
geography.  If  the  student  is  able  to  answer  them,  he 
is  also  able  to  determine  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  any 
given  locality.  The  soil  does  not  alone,  however,  make 
an  agricultural  region.  Climate,  including  heat  and 
moisture,  must  render  assistance.  Though  as  a  matter 
of  poetry,  "  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth,  and  we 
may  hear  the  sound  thereof  but  cannot  tell  whence  it 
cometh  or  whither  it  goeth  "  :  still,  as  a  matter  of 


The  Inundation  Principle.  13 

modern  science  there  is  little  unknown  about  either  the 
origin  or  the  course  of  the  winds.  The  child  who  has 
acquired  even  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  air  currents, 
and  knows  the  simple  laws  governing  evaporation  and 
precipitation,  may  determine  from  the  relief  form  of  a 
continent  the  approximate  rainfall  in  any  given  locality, 
and  thereby  decide  for  himself  whether  a  certain  region 
has  the  necessary  conditions  to  make  it  a  good  agri- 
cultural district.  Without  this  knowledge  of  nature's 
laws  he  must  depend  entirely  upon  his  memory  in  his 
efforts  to  locate  the  farming  lands  of  the  world.  With 
this  knowledge  he  sees  that  agricultural  geography 
grows  out  of  physical  geography  and  is  dependent 
thereon. 

When  manufacturing  had  its  origin,  water  was  the 
chief  power  used  in  driving  machinery.  Even  yet, 
owing  to  its  cheapness,  it  is  retained  in  service  wher- 
ever possible.  The  older  manufacturing  districts  are, 
therefore,  situated  upon  rapid  rivers,  at  points  where 
there  is  sufficient  fall  to  generate  power.  Only  in  the 
last  years  of  the  present  century  have  steam  and  elec- 
tricity made  it  possible  to  establish  manufacturing 
plants  remote  from  running  water.  Acting  upon  the 
general  principle  involved,  settlers  going  into  a  new 
country  have  seized  upon  water-power  sites,  and  around 
such  places  there  have  quickly  sprung  up  villages, 
towns  and  cities. 

Why  do  certain  rivers  creep  lazily  and  wearily  toward 
the  sea,  while  others  plunge  headlong  toward  the  ocean 
with  the  strength  of  a  thousand  horses  in  their  tor- 
rents ?  This  is  a  question  for  the  student  of  physical 


14  How  to  TeacJi  tlic  Frye  Geographies. 

geography  ;  yet  upon  its  answer  depends  in  a  large 
measure  the  ability  of  a  student  to  locate,  irrespective 
of  the  words  of  the  text,  the  manufacturing  districts  of 
a  country.  Thus  taught,  even  a  young  philosopher  can 
determine  why  New  England  had  its  millions  of  busy 
spindles,  while  upon  the  banks  of  the  lower  Mississippi 
not  a  single  mill  stood  among  the  whitened  fields  of 
cotton. 

Has  physical  geography  any  message  for  the  boy  or 
girl  who  is  trying  to  learn  about  the  mineral  regions 
of  the  world  ?  At  no  other  point  in  the  whole  range 
of  the  science  is  the  answer  more  explicit.  Geology, 
the  foster  parent  of  physical  geography,  teaches  the 
student  to  read  the  history  of  this  old  world  in  the 
strata  which  compose  the  leaves  in  her  book.  In  some 
places  these  strata  lie  unsoiled  and  smooth  as  they 
were  originally  placed,  but  in  others  they  are  crumpled 
and  torn,  exposing  the  ragged  edges  of  many  a  deep- 
laid  leaf  to  the  inspection  of  man.  At  such  places, 
minerals  which  were  once  deposited  far  below  the  sur- 
face are  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  drill,  the  pick 
and  the  shovel. 

How  was  coal  made?  What  are  the  interrelations 
between  coal,  petroleum  and  natural  gas  ?  What  agen- 
cies have  been  at  work  to  transform  soft  coal  into  hard 
coal  ?  Surelv  the  pupil  who  can  answer  these  questions 
will  have  little  difficulty  in  locating  the  coal,  oil  and 
gas  fields  of  the  world. 

•  The  average  teacher  who  instructs  her  pupils  as  to 
the  locality,  size  and  leading  enterprises  of  any  given 
city  takes  it  for  granted  that  she  has  discharged  her 


The  Foundation  Principle.  I  5 

whole  duty.  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  that  there 
is  a  better  way  which  should  be  adopted.  These  great 
centers  of  population  usually  have  their  origin  in  one 
of  four  causes  ;  they  are  educational  centers,  political 
centers,  manufacturing  centers  or  trade  centers.  Ann 
Arbor  is  an  illustration  of  the  first,  Washington  of  the 
second,  Lowell  of  the  third  and  New  Orleans  of  the 
fourth  class.  Occasionally  a  city,  as  Boston,  has  its 
origin  in  two  or  three  of  the  above  causes.  Every 
great  producing  region  has  its  distinct  trade  center 
conveniently  situated  for  discharging  the  business 
pertaining  to  that  region.  Odessa,  Rio  dc  Janeiro, 
Minneapolis,  are  illustrations  of  this  point.  Occasion- 
ally the  same  city  is  so  situated  that  it  can  readily 
serve  as  a  trade  center  for  two,  three,  or  even  four 
distinct  producing  regions.  Chicago  is  an  illustration 
of  such  a  city.  When  thus  favored  a  city  must  needs 
grow  rapidly. 

There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  transportation  — 
land  and  water.  Cities  which  owe  their  importance 
to  the  fact  that  they  serve  as  freight  depots  for  vast 
regions  must  be  situated  at  points  favorable  to  either 
one  or  both  kinds  of  transportation.  When  a  city  is 
located  so  that  it  is  a  necessary  center  for  both  land 
and  water  transportation,  is  furthermore  a  great  manu- 
facturing center,  is  still  further  a  collecting  and  distrib- 
uting point  for  several  great  producing  regions,  and 
becomes  finally  a  distinct  educational  center, — that  city 
must  of  necessity  grow  beyond  all  precedent.  Chicago 
is  the  only  illustration  of  such  a  metropolis. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  every  important  seaport 


1 6  Hoiv  to  Teach  tJic  Fryc  Geographies. 

is  located  upon  a  good  harbor.  If  the  seaport  in  ques- 
tion is  an  old  one,  the  water  upon  which  it  is  situated 
is  a.  good  natural  harbor.  Venice  illustrates  this  truth. 
If,  however,  the  city  is  a  modern  one,  the  harbor  may 
be  artificial.  Such  is  the  harbor  at  Galveston.  In 
many  places  man  has  supplemented  the  work  of  Nature 
so  that  a  harbor  which  was  originally  slightly  defective 
has  been  made  ideal.  Such  is  New  York  harbor. 

Do  not  the  above  remarks  suggest  a  more  perfect 
way  for  teachers  to  teach  the  geography  of  cities  ? 
The  vital  question  is  not,  "Where  is  a  city?"  but, 
"  Why  is  it  in  that  place  ?  "  Pupils  taught  by  this 
latter  method  cannot  but  be  impressed  with  the  fact 
that  the  great  centers  of  the  world's  population  have 
not  been  located  by  chance,  but  are  determined  by 
underlying  principles  whose  operation  may  be  known 
to  all. 

Having  by  the  above  process  determined  the  loca- 
tion of  the  leading  cities  of  any  given  country,  the  next 
point  in  studying  the  commercial  geography  is  to  dis- 
cuss their  means  of  communication.  If  it  is  true  that 
the  chief  factors  in  determining  the  site  of  a  city  are 
physical  forces,  it  is  also  true,  even  to  a  greater  extent, 
that  the  lines  of  communication  between  those  cities 
are  similarly  decided  upon.  When  the  Great  Lakes 
were  to  be  connected  with  the  Hudson  river  by  canal, 
the  first  point  to  be  decided  was  the  location  of  a 
natural  water  course  between  Buffalo  and  Albany. 
Where  shall  an  oceanic  canal  be  located  for  the  pur- 
pose of  connecting  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  with 
the  waters  of  the  Pacific  ?  Panama  was  once  chosen 


TJic  Foundation  Principle.  17 

because  the  isthmus  was  the  narrowest  and  the  moun- 
tains the  lowest  at  this  point.  Millions  of  dollars  were 
expended  before  it  was  found  that  the  route  was  imprac- 
ticable. Nicaragua  is  now  the  favorite  route,  because 
the  physical  geography  of  that  region  makes  the  task 
of  the  engineer  less  difficult,  even  though  the  length 
of  the  canal  is  greater.  When  it  became  necessary  to 
connect  by  rail  Denver  with  San  Francisco,  the  engi- 
neers sought  carefully  some  mountain  pass  where  for 
ages  water  has  been  steadily  at  work  cutting  a  defile 
between  the  peaks,  and  making  possible  the  construc- 
tion of  a  railroad.  When  a  trunk  line  is  to  be  laid 
between  Chicago  and  New  York,  every  inch  of  ground 
is  carefully  inspected,  in  order  that  all  possible  ad- 
vantage may  be  taken  of  water  courses,  ravines  and 
valleys,  thereby  finally  locating  the  route  in  such  a 
place  that  the  gradients  shall  be  least  in  that  direction 
in  which  the  heaviest  freight  is  drawn.  Nor  are  we 
confined  to  modern  history  for  illustrations  of  the  prin- 
ciple under  discussion.  The  great  commercial  routes 
of  the  old  world  were  along  lines  of  least  resistance, 
whether  they  traversed  the  burning  sands  of  Arabia  or 
skirted  the  coasts  of  Europe.  When  the  invention  of 
the  mariner's  compass  removed  hitherto  insurmount- 
able obstacles  and  changed  the  lines  of  least  resistance, 
Venice,  Pisa  and  Genoa  felt  the  uplift  of  a  new  com- 
mercial life.  Still  later,  when  the  routes  were  again 
changed,  these  commercial  centers  of  the  middle  ages 
became  mere  memories  in  the  business  world. 

Apply  the  foregoing  general   principles  to  the  study 
of  the  settlement  of  our  own  country.      From  the  time 


1 8  Hvw  to  Teach  the  Fryc  Geographies. 

when  the  first  settlers  pushed  up  the  creeks  and  rivers 
which  empty  into  the  Atlantic,  building  their  stock- 
ades and  clearing  the  ground,  to  the  time  when  their 
descendants,  imbued  with  the  same  spirit,  planted  the 
most  recent  settlements  upon  our  western  coast,  advanc- 
ing civilization  has  followed  the  natural  roadways  of 
the  continent,  and  its  star  has  in  turn  stood  above  each 
favored  spot  where  kind  Nature  made  it  possible  for 
man  to  make  "the  desert  blossom  as  the  rose."  The 
first  settlers  followed  water  courses  or  picked  their 
trail  around  morasses,  avoided  steep  hills  and  finally 
settled  in  those  localities  where  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence would  be  least  severe.  A  drive  along  the  original 
turnpikes  which  cross  the  southern  part  of  Michigan 
cannot  but  impress  this  truth  upon  even  a  casual  ob- 
server. When  Marcus  Whitman,  with  his  peck  of  seed 
wheat  and  old  red  wagon,  picked  his  way  through  the 
mountain  fastnesses  of  the  Rockies  that  he  might  set- 
tle in  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Oregon,  and  thereby 
take  possession  of  the  land  which  should  ultimately 
become  two  mighty  states,  he  illustrated  the  same  gen- 
eral law.  When  the  "Forty-niners,"  with  their  prairie 
schooners,  wound  slowly  over  the  trackless  prairies 
and  then  climbed  wearily  through  the  safest  mountain 
gorges  that  they  might  win  a  fortune  and  establish  a 
state,  they,  too,  illustrated  this  same  general  law. 
Indeed,  the  student  of  history  who  would  rightly  study 
the  gradual  settlement  of  the  United  States  must 
study  it  from  the  standpoint  of  physical  geography. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that   Fryc  has  many 
reasons  for  claiming  that  the  vital  geography,  the  polit- 


Tlic  Foundation  Principle.  19 

ical  geography  and  the  commercial  geography  of  the 
world  grow  out  of,  and  are  dependent  upon,  the  phys- 
ical geography  of  the  world.  It  remains  for  us  in  sub- 
sequent chapters  to  see  how  this  truth  is  brought  out 
and  developed  in  the  two  books  which  this  author  has 
written. 


CHAPTER    II. 

Frye's  Primary   Geography.     Pages  /-//. 

SOME   GEOGRAPHY   MAXIMS. 

THE  casual  reader  will  notice  at  once  a  marked  dif- 
ference between  the  opening  pages  of  this  book  and 
the  corresponding  pages  of  other  primary  geographies. 
It  has  been  customary  in  times  past  for  authors  of 
geographies  to  begin  with  definitions  of  various  land 
forms  and  water  forms.  Search  as  best  you  can  through 
the  first  seventeen  pages  of  F rye's  book,  and  you  do 
not  find  a  single  definition.  This  much  is  apparent  to 
all.  The  vital  difference  is  not,  however,  so  apparent. 
To  discover  this,  one  must  look  closer. 

Two  distinct  forms  of  reasoning  have  been  given  to 
the  world  —  the  deductive  and  the  inductive.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  former  the  reasoner  pn  ceeds  from 
general  truths  to  individual  facts.  In  accordance  with 
the  latter  the  reasoner  begins  with  individual  facts  and 
reaches  general  conclusions.  The  deductive  system  of 
reasoning  was  formulated  by  Aristotle,  and  for  1500 
years  constituted  the  only  recognized  system.  Even 
yet  it  is  used  exclusively  in  pure  mathematics.  While 
this  system  held  universal  sway  science  stood  still,  or 
if  it  advanced,  it  was  almost  sure  to  reach  incorrect 
conclusions.  Finally  Bacon  systematized  the  inductive 


Some  Geography  Mn.rhns.  21 

form  of  reasoning  and  established  the  truth  that  ob- 
servation, the  gathering  of  data  and  the  examination 
of  individual  facts  should  precede  the  enunciation  of  a 
general  truth.  Final  conclusions  were  thus  made  to 
depend  upon  actual  facts  ;  whereas  in  times  past  the 
actual  facts  were  distorted  to  harmonize  with  the  gen- 
eral conclusions.  The  immediate  effect  of  the  Baco- 
nian or  inductive  system  of  reasoning  upon  all  branches 
of  science  was  marked.  Chemistry,  Physics,  Botany, 
Medicine,  Zoology,  Physiology,  Geology  and  Physical 
Geography  were  soon  established  upon  a  reasonable 
basis.  Having  been  thus  established,  they  offered  a 
most  fruitful  field  for  investigation  and  research.  The 
result  was  most  astounding.  These  sciences  forged 
ahead  more  within  the  next  few  years  than  they  had 
in  all  the  preceding  centuries. 

Mr.  Frye  in  these  first  pages  of  his  Primary  book 
has  simply  applied  the  inductive  process  of  reasoning 
to  a  beginners'  geography.  lie  aims  to  reason  from 
individual  facts,  gathered  by  observation,  to  general 
conclusions,  and  moves  continually  from  the  concrete 
to  the  abstract.  In  this  way  he  establishes  several  in- 
teresting geographical  principles.  In  thus  establishing 
them  he  trains  not  merely  the  child's  memory,  but  his 
reasoning  powers  as  well. 

There  arc  two  kinds  of  observation  :  observation  of 
nature  per  .sv,  and  observation  of.  pictures  or  models 
of  nature.  The  former  is  always  best  when  it  can  be 
rightly  directed  ;  the  latter  is  often  necessary  in  the 
study  of  geography,  because  many  forms  of  land  and 
water  arc  not  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  »i  the  school. 


22  Hoiv  to  TcacJi  the  Frj'c  Geographies. 

Frye  recognizes  both  kinds  of  observation.  He  sup- 
plements the  first  by  an  abundance  of  well-selected 
pictures,  illustrating  the  phenomena  under  discussion. 
Xo  teacher  can  use  this  book  successfully  unless  she 
realizes  the  importance  of  both  kinds  of  observation. 
She  must  frequently  take  her  class  to  observe  gravel 
banks,  slopes,  divides,  valleys,  basins,  deltas,  water 
courses  and  vegetation  to  be  found  within  walking 
distance  of  her  school  ;  and  also  train  her  children  to 
study  illustrations  of  other  phenomena  not  located 
thus  conveniently.  In  doing  this  work  she  must  exer- 
cise the  greatest  care  that  her  pupils  are  taught  how 
to  observe  and  what  to  observe.  The  importance  of 
these  lessons  is  not  confined  to  the  geography.  The 
power  of  observing  carefully  (such  power  must  always 
precede  the  habit  of  observing  carefully)  is  a  necessary 
foundation  for  all  science  training.  More  than  this, 
there  is  no  other  power  which  the  teacher  can  cultivate 
in  her  pupils  which  enters  more  vitally  into  their  ulti- 
mate success  as  men  and  women.  lie  who  observes 
accurately  and  compares  carefully  has  a  power  which 
iroes  far  toward  making  his  success  assured. 

O  <^> 

Let  us  now  observe  how  Mr.  Frye  applies  the  induc- 
tive system  of  reasoning  to  geography.  In  his  first 
lesson  he  makes  what  the  lawyer  would  term  "an 
opening  statement,"  in  which  he  announces  that  which 
he  expects  to  show  in  the  course  of  the  book.  Passing 
on  to  Lesson  2,  he  directs  the  observation  of  teacher 
and  pupils  along  certain  lines.  In  Lesson  3  the 
observation  work  is  continued  with  this  difference  — 
in  the  second  lesson  that  which  is  observed  is  nature 


Some  Geography  Maxims.  23 

itself  ;  in  the  third  it  is  pictures  of  nature.  In  the 
fourth  lesson  the  pupils  are  led  to  think  about  some 
natural  scenes  which  they  beheld  in  times  past,  but 
which  are  not  now  before  their  eyes,  either  in  actual 
form  or  as  pictures.  Then  before  the  close  of  the 
lesson  the  first  general  geographical  principle  is  enun- 
ciated ;  viz.,  that  slopes  decide  tJie  direction  of  rivers, 
and  by  rivers  i^c  arc  able  to  find  out  tlie  direction  of 
slopes.  This  is  a  simple,  yet  an  important  principle. 
Many  pupils  have,  however,  advanced  to  the  age  of 
maturity  without  recognizing  this  truth  or  using  it  in 
the  study  of  maps.  Having  reached  the  general  con- 
clusion, it  will  be  well  to  permit  pupils  to  apply  the 
same  to  the  examination  of  such  maps  as  those  found 
on  pages  9,  32,  42  and  46.  In  fact  they  should  make 
constant  use  of  this  and  succeeding  general  principles 
as  soon  as  those  principles  are  developed.  By  thus 
using  these  principles  they  will  learn  to  recognize  their 
importance,  and  will  realize  that  they  constitute  the 
alphabet  of  geography.  It  will  be  well,  at  this  point, 
to  make  one  general  statement  which  pertains  to  the 
working  out  not  merely  of  the  first  geographical  prin- 
ciple, but  also  to  those  which  follow.  Teachers  should 
not  confine  themselves  to  the  exact  questions  asked 
in  the  book.  The  observation  work,  both  as  it  per- 
tains to  nature  and  to  pictures,  should  be  broader  and 
more  extensive  than  is  there  specified.  The  teacher 
must  recognize  the  general  truth  which  she  wishes 
to  bring  out,  and  direct  the  observation  accordingly. 
Moreover,  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  school  may 
give  opportunity  for  much  more  extended  observation 


24  How  to  Teach  tlic  Fryc  Geographies. 

of  nature  than  even  Mr.  Frye  suggests.  You  will  also 
be  able  to  illustrate  many  points  by  pictures  selected 
from  other  text-books  and  from  general  collections. 

With  the  fifth  lesson  the  author  takes  up  a  different 
thought.  He  here  directs  pupil  and  teacher  to  make 
certain  experiments.  What  is  an  experiment?  Simply 
a  question  asked  of  Nature.  To  learn  the  answer  one 
must  observe  closely.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
lesson  the  author  directs  certain  lines  of  observation 
work,  and  by  the  time  the  last  paragraphs  are  reached 
the  pupil  is  ready  to  draw  his  second  conclusion  ;  viz., 
Coarser  soil  is  found  near  tJic  heads  of  streams,  wliilc 
the  finest  soil  is  in  tJic  I'icinity  of  tJic  outlet.  Let  him 
apply  this  principle  to  the  discussion  of  the  upper  pic- 
ture on  page  2,  and  the  two  pictures  on  page  5.  He 
will  be  able  to  see  that  this  same  principle  is  applicable 
to  the  largest  river  basins  in  the  world. 

In  Lesson  /  the  author  directs  another  line  of  experi- 
mentation. In  Lesson  8  the  pupil  is  led  to  observe 
the  effect  of  water  upon  vegetation,  and  is  taught  the 
third  general  principle  ;  viz.,  Wafer  is  necessary  to  all 
forms  of  vegetable  life. 

In  Lesson  9  the  author  directs  some  new  experi- 
ments, with  an  entirely  different  object  in  view.  He 
lollows  these  in  Lesson  10  with  observation  work  from 
nature  which  is  within  the  reach  of  every  pupil.  This 
is  continued  in  the  early  part  of  Lesson  i  i.  Finally, 
before.'  the  close  of  that  lesson,  he  announces  the  fourth 
general  principle  ;  viz.,  l')eltas  are  formed  frcm  soil 
worn  o/f  from  ///;;"//  land  and  deposited  where  slow 
streams  empty  itit,>  still  water.  This  is  one  of  the  most 


Sonic  GcograpJiy  Maxims.  25 

important  geographical  principles  which  the  student 
will  meet.  Notice  how  the  conclusion  has  been  estab- 
lished. The  author  begins  with  the  observation  of 
seemingly  trivial  forces  at  work  in  the  vicinity  of  any 
school  house,  and  step  by  step  leads  up  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  general  principle  which  accounts  for  the  for- 
mation of  some  of  the  most  extensive  and  fertile  tracts 
in  the  world.  Be  sure  to  let  the  pupil  make  use  of  this 
principle.  Teach  him  to  recognize  a  delta  wherever  he 
sees  it,  both  in  his  own  observation  of  nature  and  in 
the  examination  of  pictures  and  maps.  By  contrast 
let  him  observe  also  what  rivers  will  not  form  deltas. 
Lven  now  he  may  compare  the  outlets  of  the  Columbia 
and  the  Mississippi,  the  Ganges  and  the  St.  Lawrence, 
the  Indus  and  the  Colorado,  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube, 
the  Congo  and  the  Nile. 

It  will  he  well  for  the  pupil  now  to  combine  princi- 
ples two,  three  and  four,  and  determine  for  himself 
the  soil  in  the  deltas  and  also  whether  that  soil  is  cal- 
culated to  support  vegetation.  The  pupil  has  not  thus 
far  had  anything  relative  to  the  effect  of  temperature 
upon  vegetation,  and  consequently  the  teacher  will  be 
obliged  to  direct  his  reasoning  so  that  he  may  not  form 
erroneous  conclusions. 

With  Lesson  12  the  author  begins  another  line  of 
experiments  by  which  he  seeks  to  place  before  the 
pupil  the  different  conditions  under  which  evaporation 
and  precipitation  take  place.  In  Lesson  13  he  leads 
the  child  to  see  these  same  forces  at  work  in  nature 
itself.  The  conditions  of  the  various  forms  of  precipi- 
tation are  set  forth.  All  these  are  drawn  from  infor- 


26  Hoiv  to  TcacJi  the  Frye  Geographies. 

mation  already  possessed  by  the  pupil.  In  Lesson  14 
the  child  is  taught  to  observe  at  least  two  sources  of 
streams,  and  in  Lesson  15  the  fifth  general  principle  is 
enunciated  ;  viz.,  By  means  of  evaporation  and  precipi- 
tation t/ic  rivers  are  supplied  vvitli  icatcr. 

In  the  development  of  the  next  general  principle  it 
is  suggested  that  Lesson  17  follow  immediately  after 
Lesson  19.  Lesson  16  is  an  observation  lesson.  So 
are  Lessons  18  and  19.  Their  examination,  taken  in 
the  order  suggested,  will  lead  the  pupil  from  local  to 
universal  facts  and  will  include  both  the  examination 
of  nature  itself  and  pictorial  representations  of  nature. 
In  Lesson  17  the  pupil  establishes  his  sixth  general 
conclusion  ;  namely,  By  means  of  divides  river  basins 
and  systems  are  formed.  Review  the  first  principle  in 
connection  with  the  sixth.  Make  practical  application 
of  this  general  principle  in  the  study  of  maps  on  pages 
9,  32,  36,  42,  46,  50  and  91.  Then  return  to  the  map 
on  page  8  and  train  the  pupil  to  observe  that  between 
adjacent  branches  of  the  Mississippi  system  there  must 
be  a  local  divide.  Every  such  branch,  therefore,  having 
a  divide  on  each  side  of  it,  marks  a  distinct  valley. 
Pupils  should  be  taught  to  distinguish  carefully  be- 
tween local  slopes  and  general  slopes  ;  the  main  stream 
and  its  chief  branches  revealing  the  latter,  while  the 
smaller  branches  determine  the  former.  A  study  of 
the  Tennessee  and  the  Cumberland  rivers  will  be  inter- 
esting in  this  connection.  It  will  be  well  to  ask  the 
children  to  locate  the  lowest  ground  in  any  great  river 
system,  and  to  point  out  and  describe  the  general  slopes 
which  approach  that  lowest  ground  ;  then  to  see  how 


Maxims. 


these  general  slopes  are  in  turn  cut  by  other  valleys, 
in  which  the  slopes  are,  in  all  probability,  at  right 
angles  to  the  main  slope  ;  how  these  second  valleys 
may  be  in  turn  cut  by  still  smaller  valleys,  and  these 
again  traversed  by  other  valleys,  until  finally  the 
branches  have  been  traced  back  to  the  original  brooks 
which  flow  between  the  local  hills.  Remember  that 
all  these  can  be  read  from  the  map  on  page  8,  if  the 
other  maps  have  been  studied  as  suggested.  The 
teacher  must,  however,  make  use  of  the  wonderful 
imagination  which  every  child  possesses.  The  white 
page  before  him,  covered  with  a  few  wiggly  black  lines, 
will  then  have  a  meaning  which  otherwise  it  cannot 
possess.  Hills  and  valleys  will  come  forth,  slopes  and 
divides  be  a  reality,  and  the  whole  surface  of  any  map 
become  a  book  as  legible  and  entertaining  as  a  fairy 
tale. 

\Yith  Lesson  20  the  author  begins  another  series  of 
experiments.  He  follows  this  in  Lessons  21  and  22 
with  a  series  of  observations.  These  experiments  and 
observations  have  a  definite  purpose.  They  serve  to 
lead  the  pupil  out  from  the  individual  to  the  general. 
The  experiments  and  observations  cover  both  nature 
itself  and  pictures.  Following  these  directions  the 
pupil  is  able  to  ascertain  the  seventh  geographical 
principle,  which  is:  Wind,  frost  and  running  water  arc 
tlic  cliii'J  agencies  in  pulverizing  rock  and  iccaring  doion 
mountains.  1  laving  determined  this  principle,  the  pupil 
should  make  practical  application  of  it  in  the  discussion 
of  local  geographical  features.  He  should  realize  that 
these  forces  are  at  work  transforming  the  surface  of  the 


28  Hoiv  to  Teach  tJic  Fryc  Geographies. 

ground  in  his  immediate  neighborhood.  Such  observa- 
tion will  assist  the  pupil  in  appreciating  the  fact  that 
these  general  principles  which  he  has  discovered  are 
principles  which  are  now  operating  in  actual  nature  and 
not  merely  something  which  the  author  has  seen  fit  to 
place  in  the  text-book. 

The  general  principle  which  the  author  seeks  to 
develop  in  Lessons  23  and  24  is  closely  connected  with 
the  seventh  principle.  The  means  of  reaching  the  final 
conclusion  are  the  same  as  have  been  heretofore  noticed  ; 
namely,  by  observation  and  experiment,  to  proceed  from 
the  examination  of  individual  facts  to  the  general  con- 
clusion. In  Lessons  20,  21  and  22  the  pupil  was  led 
to  discover  the  great  agencies  which  Nature  uses  in 

o  o 

wearing  down  the  mountains.  In  Lessons  23  and  24 
he  notes  the  eighth  general  principle,  namely  :  Running 
water  is  tJic  cJiicf  agency  in  transporting  material  from 
tJic  mountain  regions  to  the  lowlands,  and  most  of  tJie 
lowlands  of  tlie  ivorld  Jiai'c  been  tlius  made.  Pupils 
should  now  combine  principles  seven  and  eight  in  the 
discussion  of  such  regions  as  the  Colorado  canon,  Niag- 
ara gorge,  the  Nile  valley,  the  Mississippi  valley  and 
the  Ganges  valley.  While  it  is  true  that  pupils  do  not 
yet  know  the  geographical  location  of  these  regions, 
neither  have  they  had  any  instruction  relative  to  the 
names  of  the  different  continents  and  divisions  ;  it  is 
equally  true  that  if  the  teacher  will  turn  to  the  maps 
the  pupils  will  easily  see  how  the  seventh  and  eighth 
principles  enable  one  to  understand  the  necessary  geo- 
graphical conditions  of  tin.  se  places. 

Thus  far  the  general  principles  that  have  been  devel- 


Some  Geography  Maxims.  29 

oped  arc  those  which  largely  govern  the  building  up  of 
the  inside  of  a  continent.  Very  little  has  been  given 
about  shaping  its  margin.  The  only  place  where  any- 
thing has  been  said  directly  about  shore  lines  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  formation  of  deltas  at  mouths  of  rivers. 
In  Lessons  25  and  26,  by  skillful  questioning  and  by 
carefully  directed  observation,  the  author  establishes 
the  ninth  geographical  principle  :  The  chief  agency  in 
shaping  shore  forms  is  the  ocean.  He  shows  how  the 
waves,  surf  and  currents  act  differently  upon  different 
kinds  of  soil,  fashioning  in  one  place  a  bold  bluff,  in 
another  a  shelving  beach  ;  how  a  harbor  is  cut  here  and 
an  unbroken  shore  line  is  left  there. 

The  nine  principles  re-stated  in  order  of  their  devel- 
opment are  :  — 

1.  Slopes  decide  the  direction  of  rivers,  and  by  rivers 
\ve  are  able  to  find  out  the  direction  of  slopes. 

2.  Coarser  soil   is  found   near  the  heads  of  streams, 
while  the  finest  soil  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  outlet. 

3.  Water  is  necessary  to  all  forms  of  vegetable  life. 

4.  Deltas  are  formed  from  soil  worn  off  from   high 
land  and  deposited  where  slow  streams  empty  into  still 
water. 

5.  Ey  means  of  evaporation    and    precipitation    the 
rivers   are   supplied  with   water. 

6.  l>y  means  of  divides  river  basins  and  systems  are 
formed. 

/.  Wind,  frost  and  running  water  are  the  chief  agen- 
cies in  pulverizing  rock  and  wearing  down  mountains. 

8.  Running  water  is  the  chief  agency  in  transporting 
material  from  the  mountain  regions  to  the  lowlands, 


30  Hoiv  to  TcacJi  tJic  Fryc  Geographies. 

and  most  of  the  lowlands  of  the  world  have  been  thus 
made. 

9.  The  chief  agency  in  shaping  shore  forms  is  the 
ocean. 

Every  pupil  should  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
above  principles,  lie  can  no  more  understand  the  re- 
maining pages  of  geography  if  he  is  in  ignorance  of 
them,  than  he  can  understand  advanced  mathematics 
if  he  is  unacquainted  with  the  fundamental  operations 
in  arithmetic.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  a  pupil  should 
memorize  these  principles  (a  parrot  could  do  that)  ;  it 
is  necessary  that  he  should  have  the  power  of  applying 
these  principles  to  the  discussion  of  the  geography  of 
any  given  locality  which  he  may  be  studying.  In  all 
subsequent  work  teachers  should  recognize  these  prin- 
ciples and  give  the  pupils  abundant  opportunity  to  make 
practical  application  of  them  in  the  daily  work  of  the 
class-room.  Pupils  must  be  trained  to  see  that  these 
principles  do  not  operate  individually,  but  in  unison. 
Often,  in  trying  to  understand  the  features  of  some 
locality,  several  or  all  of  the  principles  must  be  used. 
The  practice  of  thus  applying  the  principles  will  assist- 
in  training  the  pupil's  judgment  and  reason.  This 
work  will  place  the  study  of  geography  upon  an  en- 
tirely different  basis  than  that  heretofore  occupied  and 
will  entitle  it  to  a  much  higher  place  in  the  school 
curriculum. 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE   PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY    OF   THE   WORLD. 

THIS  portion  of  the  book  is  distinct  and  character- 
istic. At  the  time  the  book  was  written  no  other 
author  had  put  forth  anything  like  it.  As  Mr.  Frye 
makes  so  much  depend  upon  the  physical  geography 
of  the  world,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  work  of  these 
pages  constitutes  a  most  important  undertaking  in  the 
study  of  geography.  The  teacher  must  here,  if  any- 
where, enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  book.  She  must 
grasp  the  central  thought  of  the  author  and  work  in 
harmony  therewith.  What  is  this  central  thought? 
Simply  this  :  The  unity  of  tJic  physical  features  of  tJic 
.cartJi.  To  establish  this,  Mr.  Frye  first  discusses  the 
earth  as  a  unit,  showing  that  there  is  a  world  ridge 
traversing  the  globe  and  having  its  uniform  divides  and 
slopes.  The  pupil  is  led  to  notice  the  similarity  among 
the  inside  slopes  and  the  similarity  among  the  outside 
slopes  of  this  ridge.  The  relation  of  this  ridge  to  the 
shallow  and  dee}")  oceans  is  also  brought  out.  In  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  part  of  the  book  the  teacher  must  supple- 
ment the  text  with  oral  instruction  in  certain  particulars  ; 
the  child  must  be  taught  the  names  of  the  grand  con- 
tinents even  before  those  names  appear  in  the  book. 


32  How  to  TcacJi  tJic  Fryc  Geographies, 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  author  to  dwell  much, 
if  any,  upon  details.  This  view  of  the  earth  is  like 
that  \vhich  a  person  upon  the  moon  might  obtain 
through  a  powerful  telescope.  To  him  the  earth 
would  be  a  unit,  and  to  the  child,  in  the  study  of  the 
world  ridge,  it  is  to  be  a  unit  traversed  by  one  great 
elevation. 

Before  taking  up  the  study  of  the  continents,  as 
given  on  page  31,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to 
bring  out  a  few  of  the  salient  features  in  the  chapter 
on  Heat,  Wind  and  Rain,  begun  on  page  75.  A  pupil 
at  this  point  should  know  the  approximate  location  of 
the  belts  of  heat.  He  should  know  that  heated  air 
rises  and  that  cool  air  rushes  in  to  take  its  place  ;  that 
this,  coupled  with  the  rotary  motion  of  the  earth, 
causes  the  Trade  Winds,  which  blow  constantly  from 
the  east  over  a  region  of  the  earth  extending  each  side 
of  the  equator  nearly  one  third  the  distance  to  the 
poles.  He  should  know  that  water  is  evaporated  from 
wet  surfaces  ;  that  the  amount  of  evaporation  is  in- 
creased by  increasing  the  temperature  and  by  setting 
the  air  in  motion  ;  that  warm  air  will  carry  more  mois- 
ture than  cold  air  ;  that  the  effect  of  sufficiently  cooling 
the  air  is  to  cause  precipitation;  that  the  chief  forms 
of  precipitation  are  fog,  rain  and  snow  ;  that  the  inter- 
position of  a  range  of  mountains  in  the  path  of  a  warm, 
wet  wind  invariably  causes  heavy  rainfall  en  the  wind- 
ward side  of  those  mountains,  while  the  wind  which 
blows  down  from  the  summit  upon  the  leeward  side  ot 
the  mountains  is  a  drying  wind. 

In  attempting  to  establish  the  above  facts  with  refer- 


The  Physical  Geography  of  the  World.  33 

once  to  heat,  wind  and  rain,  it  will  be  well  to  avoid 
scientific  technicalities.  Make  the  lesson  as  simple  as 
possible,  but  be  sure  that  the  pupil  knows  these  facts. 
Then,  having  learned  them,  be  sure  that  he  makes 
daily  use  of  these  truths  in  his  study  of  the  physical 
geography  of  the  different  continents.  Knowing  these 
few  rudimentary  principles,  he  will  grow  to  determine, 
in  a  large  measure  without  the  help  of  teacher  or  text- 
book, the  rainfall  and  consequent  river  system  of  each 
continent. 

It  is  well  to  observe  the  order  in  which  Frye  takes 
up  the  different  continents  in  his  study  of  the  physical 
geography  of  the  world.  This  order  is  different  in  the 
Primary  and  Complete  Geographies.  Moreover,  it  is 
different  from  the  order  in  which  he  takes  them  up 
when  he  comes  to  discuss  the  political  and  commer- 
cial geography  of  the  world.  There  must  be  some 
reason  for  the  arrangement  he  adopts.  The  continents, 
in  the  "  Primary  Geography,"  are  studied  in  the  order 
of  their  increasing  difficulty.  The  simplest  and  most 
typical  continent  is  South  America.  It  therefore 
comes  first.  Then  the  others  are  discussed  in  the 
following  order  :  North  America,  Asia,  Europe,  Africa 
and  Australia.  Note  further  that  these  continents  are 
arranged  in  three  natural  pairs ;  the  two  Americas 
constituting  the  first.  In  both,  the  continental  out- 
lines are  evidently  triangular,  with  the  apexes  pointing 
toward  the  south.  The  main  and  secondary  axes  of 
the  continents  occupy  similar  positions  and  extend  in 
corresponding  directions,  while  the  interior  of  each 
continent  is  a  great  fertile  plain.  In  the  second  pair 


34  How  to  Teach  tlic  l:ryc  Geographies. 

of  continents,  Asia  and  Europe,  the  main  axes  extend- 
in  an  easterly  and  westerly  direction,  and  the  secondary 
axis  is  in  each  case  north  of  the  primary  axis  and  par- 
allel with  it.  From  each  of  these  two  continents  three 
great  plateaus  project  to  the  south  in  the  form  of 
peninsulas ;  while  the  lowlands  of  both  continents 
slope  gradually  toward  the  Arctic  ocean.  The  third 
pair  of  continents,  Africa  and  Australia,  are  also  sim- 
ilar—  not  so  much  in  their  outline  as  in  the  fact  that 
the  great  mountain  ranges  of  these  continents  follow 
quite  closely  the  coast  line,  leaving  as  the  interior  of 
each  an  elevated,  arid  plateau. 

Frye  discusses  the  continents  in  a  uniform  manner, 
which  may  be  roughly  outlined  as  follows  : 

1.  Skeleton. 

2.  Flesh. 

3.  Circulating  System. 

4.  Shore  Forms. 

It  is  not  meant  that  a  teacher  can  place  this  outline 
upon  the  board  when  she  comes  to  the  study  of  any 
given  continent,  and  from  it  secure  good  work  on  the 
part  of  her  pupils.  The  outline,  however,  not  only 
covers  the  topics  developed  by  Frye,  but  also  the  order 
in  which  they  are  discussed.  For  our  convenience  it 
may  be  necessary  to  examine  this  outline  more  in 
detail. 

By  the  skeleton  of  a  continent  is  meant  the  rehVf 
forms  of  that  continent,  the  primary  and  secondary 
axes  and  the  arrangement  of  the  plateaus.  Upon  this 
skeleton  the  flesh  of  the  continent,  that  is,  the  lowland, 
is  placed.  (Make  use  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  geo- 


Tltc  Physical  Geography  oj  the  \\\>rld.  35 

graphical  principles.)  Having  thus  determined  the 
highlands  and  lowlands,  we  are  next  to  discuss  the  cir- 
culating system  ;  but  before  the  rivers  can  be  decided 
we  must  know  the  rainfall  of  a  continent.  In  order  to 
know  this  we  must  take  up  the  position  of  the  heat 
belts  and  the  prevailing  winds.  (Revert  to  fifth  geo- 
graphical principle.)  Having  found  out  where  the 
precipitation  takes  place  and  the  form  in  which  it 
comes,  the  pupil  will  determine  the  river  systems  of  a 
continent.  (At  this  place  make  use  of  the  first  and 
sixth  geographical  principles.)  Having  mastered  these 
three  general  topics,  skeleton,  flesh  and  circulating 
system,  the  class  can  advance  to  the  discussion  of 
shore  forms,  and  see  how  they  have  been  shaped  by 
the  ocean  in  a  manner  either  to  promote  or  retard 
commerce.  (Make  application  of  the  fourth  and  eighth 
principles.)  This  is  the  order  in  which  Mr.  Frye  dis- 
cusses each  continent  in  detail. 

When  a  new  continent  is  taken  up,  the  teacher 
should  compare  that  continent  with  the  preceding  one. 
This  is  a  most  important  point.  Such  comparisons 
train  judgment  and  give  the  pupil  data  from  which  he 
may  reason.  These  comparisons  should  bring  out  not 
only  the  points  of  resemblance  but  the  points  of  differ- 
ence. By  such  means  the  central  thought  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  book  will  be  made  clear.  The  pupil  will 
see  for  himself  the  unity  which  pervades  the  physical 
geography  of  the  earth,  but  will  sec  in  that  unity  a 
variety  which  is  instructive  and  interesting. 

In  our  lessons  in  reading  and  arithmetic  we  are  very 
careful  to  give  what  are  designated  as  development 


36  How  to  TcacJi  the  Fryc  Geographies. 

lessons,  by  which  we  pave  the  way  for  that  which  is  to 
come  from  the  study  of  the  text.  From  our  broader 
experience  we  put  the  pupil  in  a  position  so  that  his 
mind  will  be  in  a  receptive  attitude  ;  thus  enabling 
him  to  take  up  the  work  of  the  study  period  in  a  way 
that  will  give  him  better  returns  for  his  labor.  The 
development  lesson  is  even  more  necessary  in  geog- 
raphy than  in  either  reading  or  arithmetic.  When  a 
new  continent  is  taken  up,  turn  to  the  physical  map  as 
given  in  the  book,  or,  what  is  better,  a  physical  wall 
map,  hung  before  the  pupils.  Give  a  development 
lesson  upon  the  physical  geography  of  the  continent, 
in  which  the  pupils  will  be  led  to  see  that  they  can 
read  from  the  map  nearly  every  important  geographical 
fact  bearing  upon  the  study.  In  truth,  as  the  student 
grows  older,  he  will  perceive,  if  rightly  taught,  that 
the  only  things  which  he  cannot  read  from  the  map 
itself  are  the  names  which  man  has  used  to  designate 
the  different  regions.  There  is  no  law  governing 
these  ;  they  are  purely  arbitrary. 


CHAITKR    IV. 

F  rye's  Primary  Geography.      Pages  55-86. 
THE   VITAL   GEOGRAPHY   OF    THE   WORLD. 

IT  is  quite  possible  that  the  title  given  to  this  chap- 
ter may  not  be  the  best  that  could  have  been  selected, 
and  therefore  it  may  be  necessary  to  explain,  in  a  word, 
what  is  meant  by  the  term  "  vital  geography."  As 
here  used,  it  means  simply  the  geography  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  world.  For  the  purposes  of  this  discus- 
sion man  will  be  classed  among  the  other  animals.  In 
thus  classifying  man  we  shall  not  undertake  to  treat  of 
his  industrial  and  political  progress,  but  shall  consider 
him  strictly  from  an  ethnological  standpoint. 

Possibly  the  first  educational  body  to  lay  stress  upon 
vital  geography  was  that  branch  of  the  National  Edu- 
cational Association  which  gave  us  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten.  They  emphasized  what  is  com- 
monly called  the  "Humanistic  side"  of  geography. 
Before  that  report  was  issued  Mr.  Frye  had,  however, 
written  his  text-books  in  which  the  broad  principle  was 
laid  down,  if  not  in  so  many  words,  at  least  by  implica- 
tion, that,  in  a  large  measure,  the  vital  geography  of 
the  world  grows  out  of,  and  is  dependent  upon,  the 
physical  geography  of  the  world. 

Though  treating  such  a  general  principle,  Air.  Frye 


38  How  to  Tcac/t  tlic  Fryc  Gcograpiiics. 

rea]izcd  that  he  was  writing  for  children,  and  that 
abstract  discussions  would  be  utterly  inadequate.  He 
therefore  sought  to  establish  his  general  conclusion  by 
such  simple  reasoning  that  even  a  child  can  grasp  it. 

This  author  introduces  the  children  of  America  to 
the  children  in  the  different  parts  of  the  earth.  His 
plan  is  much  the  same  as  that  followed  by  Jane 
Andrews  in  "  Seven  Little  Sisters  "  and  "  Each  and 
All."  The  publishers  have,  however,  made  this  text 
differ  from  the  Andrews  texts  in  several  important  par- 
ticulars, the  most  prominent  of  which  is  the  great  num- 
ber of  excellent  illustrations  found  in  the  geography. 

The  chapter  upon  the  people  can  be  considered  a 
series  of  reading  lessons,  and  should  be  supplemented 
by  corresponding  lessons  from  such  books  as  Butter- 
worth's  "  Journeys,"  "  Rollo's  Tours  "  and  Jane  An- 
drews's  stories.  The  wide-awake  teacher  will  bring  to 
the  class  many  other  books  which  will  render  real  as- 
sistance in  this  work.  If,  however,  the  lesson  stops 
simply  with  interesting  the  class  with  stories  of  the 
little  people  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  real  and 
vital  question  will  be  lost.  Every  pupil  should  see  that 
the  physical  surroundings  of  Tibbu,  Chuglu,  Mans,  \Vil- 
helm,  the  Arab  children,  the  Indian  children,  the  Lapp 
children,  the  Malay  children,  the  Japanese  children  and 
the  Chinese  children  are  the  chief  factors  in  determining 
the  kind  of  a  home  they  live  in,  the  food  they  eat,  the 
clothing  the}'  wear,  the  games  they  play,  the  progress 
they  make  and  the  occupations  their  parents  pursue. 
The  child  who  grasps  this  great  truth  will  have  the 
foundation  upon  which  to  build  a  substantial  super- 


'J'hi   Vital  Geography  of  the  ll'orld.  39 

structure  in  support  of  the  proposition  that  physical 
environment  determines  in  a  large  measure  the  posi- 
tion any  nation  takes  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

Following  the  chapter  upon  people  is  a  chapter  upon 
Heat,  Wind  and  Rain.  It  lias  been  suggested  that 
a  few  of  the  principles  involved  in  this  latter  chapter 
should  be  brought  out  and  established  before  discussing 
the  physical  geography  of  a  continent.  This  seemed 
necessary  in  order  that  pupils  might  correctly  under- 
stand the  drainage  of  the  various  grand  divisions.  The 
work  of  this  chapter  must  now  be  examined  a  second 
time,  but  for  a  different  purpose.  Rightly  studied  a 
second  time,  this  portion  of  the  book  will  give  the  nec- 
essary data  from  which  to  examine  the  flora  and  fauna 
nf  the  world.  One  of  the  strongest  features  in  Mr. 
Krye's  treatment  of  "  lle;it,  "Wind  and  Rain  "  is  the 
careful  way  in  which  he  avoids  scientific  technicalities. 
A  few  great  truths  are  brought  out,  but  they  are 
established  without  either  laborious  reasoning  or  the 
phraseology  of  science.  The  teacher  should  profit  by 
the  example  so  plainly  set  by  the  author.  Children 
who  have  reached  this  stage  in  their  work  are  unable 
to  enter  more  deeply  into  the  subject.  Rudimentary 
facts  concerning  heat,  wind  and  rain  are,  however,  nec- 
essary for  the  study  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  life 
of  the  world.  The  way  in  which  the  earth  is  heated, 
the  general  causes  for  different  degrees  of  temperature 
at  different  portions  of  the  earth,  the  various  heat 
belts,  moisture  as  a  necessary  condition  for  fertile  soil, 
the  interrelation  of  wind  and  rain  and  the  causes  of 
seasons  and  their  changes  are  the  principles  which 


40  Hoiij  to  TcacJi  the  Fiyc  Geographies. 

should  be  established  at  this  point  in  the  pupil's  prog- 
ress. If  these  principles  are  understood,  the  class 
may  safely  advance  to  the  discussion  of  plant  and 
animal  life. 

In  Lesson  109  Mr.  Frye  gives  the  key  to  this  por- 
tion of  the  work.  Note  the  two  following  sentences  : 
"  Every  plant  grows  best  where  it  has  the  kind  of  soil 
and  the  amount  of  water  and  heat  that  it  needs."  "All 
over  the  earth  plants  search  out  the  soil,  heat  and 
moisture  that  best  suit  their  needs."  Here  is  the 
statement  of  the  doctrine  of  adaptation  or,  as  it  has 
been  previously  put,  the  fact  that  the  vegetable  life  of 
the  world  grows  out  of,  and  is  dependent  upon,  the 
physical  geography  of  the  world.  These  two  state- 
ments, if  given  to  the  pupils  without  illustrations,  will 
fail  to  convey  the  real  meaning.  Undoubtedly,  Lesson 
109  is  sufficient  for  a  recitation.  Still  it  can  be  read 
in  three  minutes.  The  teacher  must  exemplify  the 
truth  of  the  two  statements  made.  To  be  sure,  the 
author  gives  several  examples.  These  are,  however, 
but  hints  ;  the  teacher  must  have  in  mind  many  other 
illustrations,  not  merely  of  a  local  character,  but  such 
as  will  lead  the  child  from  the  contemplation  of  local 
vegetation  to  the  vegetation  of  the  great  heat  belts. 
Let  him  see  that  the  principle  involved  is  one  and 
the  same,  whether  we  consider  the  pussy  willow  grow- 
ing on  the  margin  of  a  local  stream  or  the  stunted 
growth  within  the  Arctic  circle. 

In  showing  how  plants  search  out  the  soil,  heat  and 
moisture  that  best  suit  their  needs,  the  teacher  has  an 
opportunity  to  draw  abundantly  from  the  works  of  such 


The  Vital  GcograpJiy  of  the  World.  41 

teachers  as  Agassiz  and  Darwin.  Even  at  this  point 
children  can  get  a  glimpse  of  that  quiet  but  constant 
and  intense  struggle  throughout  the  vegetable  world 
which  for  ages  past,  and  during  the  unending  present, 
gives  us  "  the  survival  of  the  fittest."  He  who,  with- 
out ostentation,  without  pedantry,  but  with  simplicity 
and  with  candor,  can  teach  at  this  time  such  an  impor- 
tant truth,  has  many  of  the  elements  of  a  great  teacher. 

Following  Lesson  109  are  four  lessons  in  which 
Mr.  Frye  gives  us  the  names  of  the  plants  growing  in 
each  of  the  heat  belts.  It  would  be  quite  possible  in 
this  connection  to  require  the  child  to  memorize  the 
complete  classified  list  of  all  plants  mentioned.  Such  a 
system  would,  however,  fail  utterly  of  the  real  intent  of 
the  author.  Notice  that  under  the  discussion  of  each 
distinct  belt  there  is  a  statement  of  the  physical  condi- 
tions of  that  belt  with  reference  to  heat  and  moisture. 
For  example,  in  Lesson  110  we  find  this  assertion: 
"This  belt  (the  Hot  Belt)  has  a  hot  or  a  warm  season 
all  the  year,  with  plenty  of  rain.  The  hot  belt  is  very 
rich  in  plant  life."  Then  follows  the  enumeration  of  a 
number  of  plants  which  grow  in  the  hot  belt.  Group 
these  all  together  and  you  have  the  general  fact  that 
the  important  vegetable  life  of  this  belt  is  that  which 
produces  fruit,  which,  without  being  cooked,  serves 
adequately  as  food. 

In  Lesson  1 1 1  we  are  informed  that  the  physical 
conditions  of  the  warm  belts  are  similar  to  those  in 
the  hot  belt,  with  the  exception  that  in  the  former 
there  are  long,  hot  summers  and  short,  cool  winters. 
We  would  naturally  expect  the  vegetable  life  to  be 


42  I  hnc  to  Teach  tJic  Frye  Geographies. 

similar  to  that  of  the  hot  belt.  Though  this  similarity 
exists,  there  is,  however,  a  difference.  The  fruits  are 
not  those  which  are  calculated  to  sustain  life,  but  to 
add  to  its  pleasure.  We  here  meet  for  the  first  time 
that  cereal,  rice,  which  will  grow  nearest  the  equator. 
[Moreover,  as  there  are  short,  cool  winters  in  the 
warm  belt,  Nature  provides  a  plant  which  will  furnish 
material  for  clothing.  This  is  the  home  of  the  cotton. 

On  each  side  of  the  warm  belts  are  cool  belts.  Mr. 
Frye  tells  us  that  the  hot  and  cool  seasons  are  of 
about  equal  length.  Note  the  characteristic  vegeta- 
tion. This  is  the  home  of  the  grass,  the  cereals  and 
the  forest.  Proceeding  in  our  journey  toward  the 
poles,  we  come  next  to  the  final  heat  belts,  in  which  the 
summers  are  short  and  the  winters  long.  The  mini- 
mum growing  season  necessitates  the  most  stunted 
forms  of  vegetation.  Food  plants  are  unknown. 

In  the  chapter  on  animals  the  same  general  princi- 
ples are  developed  as  in  the  chapter  on  plants.  The 
animal  life  depends  upon  its  environment  just  as  truly 
as  does  the  vegetable  life.  The  dependence  is  not, 
however,  so  absolute,  owing  to  the  fact  that  animals 
have  the  power  of  locomotion  and  can  move  from  place 
to  place.  This  fact  makes  it  impossible  to  classify 
them  in  regard  to  heat  belts  as  accurately  as  we  do 
vegetable  life.  This  is  especially  true  with  reference 
to  birds,  which  car,  migrate  from  one  region  to  another. 
Mr.  Frye  recognizes  these  truths  in  that,  while  he 
devotes  a  separate  lesson  to  the  plants  of  each  heat 
belt,  he  groups  the  animals  of  the  heat  belts  in  one 
section.  Though  animals  have  the  power  of  locomo- 


The  Vital  Geograpliy  of  the  World.  43 

tion,  there  are  many  barriers  which  they  cannot  cross. 
Where  such  barriers  intervene  the  animal  life  on  the 
different  sides  of  the  barrier  is  distinct.  If  animals 
are  left  free  to  migrate,  they  will  ultimately  settle  in 
that  region  which  is  best  suited  for  their  development. 
Here  they  will  remain  until  the  physical  conditions 
change  or  advancing  civilization  drives  them  to  new 
fields. 

Though  in  the  vegetable  life  there  is  ever  a  struggle 
to  determine  "The  survival  of  the  fittest,"  this  struggle 
becomes  a  mere  skirmish  when  compared  with  the  con- 
test going  on  in  the  animal  world  to  determine  what 
forms  of  animal  life  shall  survive.  To  the  plants  food 
is  brought  by  the  air,  soil  and  moisture.  If  it  is  not 
thus  tendered  them,  they  die  and  a  new  form  of  vege- 
tation springs  up.  Not  so  among  the  animals.  Mr. 
Frye  aptly  says  :  "  All  around  us  there  is  a  struggle 
for  food."  The  animals  must  struggle  for  their  own 
food.  Kindly  Nature  docs  not  offer  it  to  them  from  an 
open  hand.  In  the  effort  to  obtain  the  necessaries  of 
life  they  fight  continuously  and  ultimately  die.  All 
along  the  scale  of  animal  life,  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest,  the  great  struggle  is  for  something  to  eat. 
Nature  helps  each  by  furnishing  organs  especially 
adapted  as  weapons  in  this  warfare. 

The  above  facts  show  why  Mr.  Frye  should  give  the 
lessons  on  "  The  Teeth,  Claws  and  Homes  of  Ani- 
mals." Note  the  pictures  on  page  83.  The  elephant's 
trunk  is  calculated  to  help  him  get  his  proper  food. 
The  giraffe  has  a  long  neck,  which  enables  him  to 
reach  the  branches  of  trees.  The  woodpecker  has  a 


44  I  I oiv  to  TcacJi  tJic  ]:ryc  GcognipJiics. 

stiff,  hard  bill  with  which  he  picks  holes  into  the 
trunks  of  trees.  The  cluck  has  a  shovel-shaped  bill, 
just  fitted  for  digging  in  the  mud.  The  ant-eater  has 
a  nose  and  tongue  suited  to  his  manner  of  getting  food. 
The  eagle's  beak  is  well  calculated  to  tear  to  pieces 
his  food,  while  that  of  the  finch  is  naturally  shaped  for 
cracking  seeds.  The  humming  bird  has  a  bill  with 
which  he  can  draw  nectar  from  the  deepest  flower  cup. 
The  hog  can  root  in  the  ground.  The  tiger's  paws  are 
obviously  adapted  for  springing,  catching  and  scratch- 
ing. The  duck's  feet  are  just  the  kind  to  enable  him 
to  walk  best  in  the  mud,  while  those  of  the  camel  have 
the  soft,  yielding  pads  which  make  it  possible  for  that 
animal  to  travel  over  the  sands  of  the  desert.  The 
long,  bare  legs  of  the  heron  are  such  that  that  bird  can 
wade  in  deep  water  in  search  of  food.  The  neck  and 
bill  of  this  same  bird  are  of  the  right  shape  and  length 
to  work  in  harmony  with  the  legs.  The  ostrich's  feet 
and  lego  are  well  adapted  to  running,  while  the  eagle's 
talons  are  so  strong  and  firm  that  they  can  carry  food 
which  the  beak  will  afterward  tear  to  pieces.  The 
clean,  hard  hoofs  of  the  horse  are  the  acme  of  perfec- 
tion, their  present  form  having  been  reached  through 
ages  of  development. 

Keeping  in  mind  the  above  facts,  we  shall  readily  see 
the  basis  upon  which  Mr.  J-'rye  broadly  classifies  the 
animal  life  of  the  various  regions  of  the  world.  In  the 
hot  belt  the  dominant  animal  life  is  carnivorous,  with 
all  its  inherited  ferocity.  In  the  temperate  regions 
the  dominant  animal  life  is  herbivorous  and  is  found  in 
greatest  abundance  where  pasture  lands  are  best.  In 


The  Vital  (icograpliy  of  the  ll'orld.  45 

the  polar  regions,  where  vegetation  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  the  animal  life  is  again  carnivorous,  but  is 
largely  aquatic  or  semi-aquatic. 

A  final  thought  is  necessarv  with  reference  to  the  rela- 

o  _/ 

tion  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  to  human  food.  While 
animal  life  is  most  abundant  in  the  tropics,  the  flesh  of 
animals  living  in  the  hot  belt  is  not  good  food  for 
man,  even  if  he  felt  disposed  to  eat  it.  In  the  region 
of  the  equator  man's  food  consists  almost  entirely  of 
fruits  and  vegetables.  As  we  move  toward  the  polar 
regions  cereals  take  the  place  of  some  of  the  fruits, 
and  as  we  go  still  larther  men  depend  more  upon  meat 
and  less  upon  vegetables  for  sustenance.  Finally,  as 
we  approach  the  poles,  the  flesh  of  animals  is  used 
entirely.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  maximum 
amount  of  food  supply  is  given  us  by  the  vegetable 
life  in  the  tropics,  and  the  minimum  amount  in  the 
polar  regions  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  animal  life 
gives  us  the  maximum  amount  in  the  polar  regions  and 
the  minimum  amount  in  the  tropics.  In  the  temperate 
regions  these  two  sources  of  food  are  about  evenly 
balanced  and  man  is  best  nourished. 


CHAPTER    V. 

I;rye' s  Primarv    Geography.      J*ages  86-136. 

THE  POLITICAL  AND    COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY   OF  THE 
WORLD. 

THE  next  distinct  portion  of  the  book  is  that  which 
begins  on  page  86  and  continues  throughout  the  remain- 
der of  the  text.  This  portion  treats  of  the  political  and 
commercial  geography  of  the  world.  In  teaching  these 
subjects  Mr.  Frye  would  have  it  constantly  kept  in  mind 
that  the  political  geography  and  commercial  geography 
of  the  world  grow  out  of,  and  are  dependent  upon,  the 
physical  geography  of  the  world.  Notice  how  he  intro- 
duces on  page  91  a  relief  map  of  the  United  States,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  compared  with  the  political  map 
found  on  the  opposite  page,  and  the  product  maps  found 
on  the  following  pages.  Every  one  of  these  maps  should 
be  measured  by  the  relief  map.  Much  benefit  will  be 
obtained  by  superimposing  each  in  turn  upon  the  relief 
map.  This  is  another  recurrence  of  the  foundation 
principle  of  the  book.  Some  teachers  have  thought 
that  these  branches  of  geography  should  be  brought 
out  immediately  after  the  discussion  of  the  physical 
geography  of  each  continent.  Such,  however,  is  not 
Mr.  Frye's  plan.  He  keeps  constantly  in  mind  that 
the  earth  must  be  studied  as  a  unit.  First,  he  discusses 

16 


Political  and  Commercial  Geography.  47 

the  world  ridge  ;  second,  the  physical  geography  of  the 
earth  ;  third,  the  vital  geography  of  the  earth.  Now  he 
takes  up  the  business  and  commercial  geography.  In 
each  of  these  subdivisions  the  pupil  is  led  to  see  that 
subdivision  in  its  relations,  not  merely  to  one  continent, 
however  large  that  continent  may  be,  but  to  the  entire 
world.  It  is,  therefore,  fitting  that  the  author  should 
discuss  the  relation  man  bears  to  the  earth  as  a  unit. 
The  only  place  where  the  book  deviates  from  this  gen- 
eral underlying  principle  is  from  page  129  to  page  136, 
where,  in  an  appendix  written  by  another  author,  a  new 
plan  of  treatment  is  given  for  the  geography  of  certain 
groups  of  states  in  order  to  give  more  details.  It  will, 
however,  be  noticed  that  even  this  appendix  is  to  be 
studied  only  after  the  book  has  in  reality  been  com- 
pleted. This  appendix  is,  moreover,  partially  justified 
by  the  fact  that  many  pupils  drop  out  of  school  before 
studying  the  larger  book,  \vhcrein  they  will  find  the 
more  explicit  geography  of  that  portion  of  the  United 
States  in  which  they  reside.  If  all  children  were  sure 
to  study  the  "Complete  Geography,"  this  appendix, 
treating  of  local  geography,  might  safely  be  omitted. 

In  that  portion  of  the  book  now  under  consideration 
the  child  should  get  his  principal  instruction  in  the 
geography  of  location.  Here  is  where  some  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  old-fashioned  drill.  Pupils  should 
not  be  allowed  to  pass  through  the  study  of  geography 
without  learning  definitely  the  location  of  the  most 
prominent  places  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Such  a 
knowledge  is  of  inestimable  benefit  in  all  subsequent 
reading.  In  the  examination  of  the  maps  given  by 


48  JIou  to  Tcacli  tiic  Frye  GcografJiics. 

Mr.  Frye  the  teacher  will  be  struck  with  the  fact  that 
the  author  gives  names  of  but  a  few  places.  Almost 
without  exception  those  found  in  the  "  Primary  Geog- 
raphy "  should  be  learned  by  pupils.  If  they  know  the 
location  of  these  places,  their  geography  of  location 
will  be  sufficiently  accurate  for  pupils  of  this  grade. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  in  the  discussion  of  the 
political  and  commercial  geography  of  the  world  Mr. 
Frye  takes  up  the  study  of  the  continents  in  an  entirely 
different  order  from  that  followed  when  discussing  the 
physical  geography.  \Yhy  this  change  ?  Before,  as 
was  noticed,  the  order  is  the  order  of  increasing  com- 
plexity. Now  the  order  is  the  order  of  diminishing 
business  and  political  importance  as  measured  by  the 
standard  of  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  Notice  the 
truth  of  this  statement  in  the  following  arrangement  of 
grand  divisions  :  United  States,  North  America,  South 
America,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  Australia.  Some 
may  fancy  that  Europe  should  precede  South  America, 
but  possibly,  in  placing  the  continents  in  the  order 
selected,  Mr.  Frye  has  grasped  more  accurately  than 
these  critics  the  real  present  and  future  business  and 
political  relations  of  the  United  States. 

The  way  in  which  Mr.  Frye  treats  the  subject  of 
"The  People  of  the  United  States"  is  decidedly  differ- 
ent from  the  way  in  which  that  topic  is  usually  treated 
by  geographers.  A  few  writers  of  history  have,  how- 
ever, approached  the  theme  from  practically  the  same 
standpoint.  The  average  fifth  grade  pupil,  in  studying 
the  distribution  of  people  in  the  United  States,  discov- 
ers no  laws  governing  that  distribution,  and  the  average 


Political  and  Commercial  Geography.  49 

grammar  grade  pupil,  in  studying  the  gradual  settlement 
and  development  of  the  United  States,  remains  equally 
in  ignorance  of  the  underlying  principles.  Possibly 
writers  have  thought  that  these  principles  are  either 
too  unimportant  or  else  too  difficult.  Such,  however, 
is  not  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Frye.  lie  sees  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  population  and  in  the  gradual  settlement  of 
our  country  the  same  law  which  underlies  the  entire 
subject  of  geography.  In  his  mind  the  physical  geog- 
raphy of  a  country  is  the  great  determining  force  \vhich 
decides  all  such  questions.  Adequately  understanding 
this,  the  pupil  is  able  to  know  why  cities  are  located  in 
some  places  and  not  in  others,  why  population  is  more 
dense  in  some  states  than  in  others,  and  why  settlers 
followed  certain  well-defined  routes  in  their  invasion  of 
the  New  West.  Preceding  the  establishment  of  canals 
and  railroads,  settlers  followed  the  water  courses  through 
the  forests  of  the  Middle  States  ;  and  these  same  water 
courses  served  as  highways  along  which  they  shipped 
the  products  of  their  farms.  Washington  grasped  this 
thought  over  a  hundred  years  ago,  when,  in  the  absence 
of  a  natural  water  course  connecting  the  head  waters 
of  the  Ohio  with  the  head  waters  of  the  Chesapeake, 
he  sought  to  locate  a  canal  between  those  points.  He 
recogni/ed  this  as  the  only  way  of  keeping  the  great 
Mississippi  valley  from  either  founding  an  independent 
government  or  becoming  a  province  of  France  or  Spain. 
Similarly,  he  himself  inspected  a  canal  route  between 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Hudson  river,  hoping  thereby 
to  establish  a  means  of  communication  between  the  val- 
ley of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  .Atlantic  seaboard,  and 


50  Hoii*  to  Teach  the  Fryc  Geographies . 

thus  unite  the  great  Northwest  to  the  Atlantic  States 
by  the  ties  of  commercial  interest.  To  his  mind  the 
physical  geography  of  these  regions  was  so  important 
that  it  became  a  determining  factor  in  maintaining  the 
integrity  of  that  country  whose  independence  he  had 
secured.  His  dreams  were  ultimately  realized,  even 
more  fully  than  he  expected. 

Mr.  Frye's  method  of  presenting  the  business  inter- 
ests of  the  United  States  to  a  fifth  grade  child  is  unique. 
Notice  how  he  takes  up  each  great  product  in  turn, 
giving  a  map  illustrating  the  locality  especially  adapted 
for  this  product.  He  gives  the  physical  conditions 
necessary  for  producing  each  great  staple.  As  a  means 
of  assisting  the  pupil  in  determining  these  physical  con- 
ditions it  will  be  well  to  require  the  child,  as  previously 
suggested,  to  superimpose  each  of  these  maps  upon  the 
physical  map  of  the  United  States.  He  will  thus  learn 
why  the  cotton  belt  is  in  one  region,  the  corn  belt  in 
another  and  the  wheat  belt  in  a  third.  Take  next  in 
connection  with  each  of  these  maps  the  paragraph  found, 
on  page  100,  which  reads  as  follows  :  "  Every  producing 
region  needs  one  or  more  shipping  points.  These  be- 
come centers  of  trade.  They  should  be  within  easy 
reach  of  all  parts  of  the  region,  and  should  connect  by 
water,  rail  or  other  route  with  the  markets  of  the  world." 
Require  the  pupil  to  determine  the  centers  of  trade  tor 
each  region  studied.  lie  will,  bv  this  process,  learn  the 
reason  for  the  location  of  cities.  It  is  not  enough,  how- 
ever, to  know  where  cotton  is  rnised,  how  and  where  it 
is  collected.  The  pupil  must  know  where  the  cotton  is 
manufactured  into  cloth.  This  will  establish  the  loca- 


Political  an/I  Commercial  Geography.  5  i 

tion  not  only  of  New  Orleans  and  Galvcston  but  of  Bos- 
ton, Lowell  and  Manchester  as  well.  Having  discov- 
ered the  collecting  and  manufacturing  centers,  the  next 
question  is,  "  What  are  the  routes  of  trade  between  these 
points?"  Xor  is  the  inquiry  yet  complete.  The  next 
natural  question  that  arises  is,  "What  are  the  markets 
for  the  manufactured  cotton  ?"  When  the  child  has 
determined  this  question  and  the  routes  of  trade  between 
the  manufacturing  centers  and  these  markets,  he  has 
completed  the  geography  of  cotton.  In  a  similar  way 
let  him  discuss  wool,  wheat,  forests,  beef,  cattle,  coal 
and  iron.  True,  in  some  of  these  the  manufacturing 
centers  are  not  so  concentrated  as  in  the  case  of  cotton, 
but  they  are  nevertheless  quite  distinctly  marked.  The 
cities  where  cattle  and  hogs  are  changed  to  beef  and 
pork  can  be  definitely  located.  The  interrelation  of 
coal  and  iron  will  determine  the  great  smelting  cities 
of  the  world.  It  will  thus  IDC  seen  that  whenever  a 
producing  area  is  discussed  its  physical  conditions  must 
1)0  first  determined,  then  the  area  over  which  these  con- 
ditions prevail,  then  the  collecting  and  distributing  de- 
pots for  the  area,  then  the  manufacturing  centers,  then 
the  routes  of  trade  between  the  collecting  depots  and 
the  manufacturing  centers,  then  the  markets  for  the 
finished  product,  then  the  routes  of  trade  between  the 
manufacturing  centers  and  the  markets,  and,  finally, 
the  interrelation  between  certain  great  departments  of 
business  enterprise. 

It  is  suggested  that  in  this  connection  it  will  be 
interesting  and  instructive  to  allow  the  pupil  to  super- 
impose one  product  map  upon  another,  in  order  that 


52  How  to  Teach  the  Frye  Geographies. 

he  may  determine  for  himself  what  regions  of  the 
country  depend  for  their  prosperity  upon  simply  one- 
line  of  business,  and  what  regions  have  diversified  occu- 
pations. Our  fifth  grade  boy  will  then  be  able  to 
decide  what  localities  are  least  liable  to  periods  of 
business  depression. 

The  class  which  has  followed  the  study  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  United  States  according  to  the  plans 
suggested  will  have  learned  the  reason  for  every  great 
city  in  the  country  and  the  principal  land  and  water 
routes  connecting  these  cities.  This  plan,  faithfully 
carried  out,  will  determine  quite  largely  the  answer  to 
that  perplexing  question  which  often  arises  in  the  mind 
of  the  teacher,  "What  cities  shall  I  require  my  class  to 
memorize?"  Possibly  the  only  additional  cities  which 
the  pupils  should  learn  are  those  which  owe  their 
importance  to  political  or  educational  interests.  Every 
fifth  grade  child  should  know  the  capital  of  every  state 
and  the  seats  of  our  great  universities. 

Having  mastered  somewhat  in  detail  the  political 
and  commercial  geography  of  the  United  States,  the 
pupil  advances  to  the  discussion  of  these  same  branches 
in  each  of  the  grand  divisions  of  the  world.  The 
underlying  principle  which  we  found  in  the  discussion 
of  the  geography  of  the  United  States  must  be  retained 
in  all  subsequent  similar  investigations.  True,  we 
shall  not  be  able  to  go  so  much  into  detail,  but  still  the 
pupil  must  understand  that  the  political  and  commer- 
cial geography  of  every  continent  are  the  direct  out- 
growth of  the  physical  geography  of  that  continent. 
When  he  studies  South  America,  he  must  observe  that 


Political  ami  Commercial  (icograpliy.  53 

the  physical  conditions  of  Brazil  are  such  as  make 
that  country  a  great  coffee  country.  lie  must  learn 
that  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  the  collecting  and  distributing 
depot  for  this  product.  He  must  determine  the  great 
markets  for  coffee,  and  then  sec  by  what  means  coffee- 
is  carried  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  those  markets.  Simi- 
larly, he  must  discuss  the  wheat  and  cattle  industries 
of  the  valley  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  the  sheep  industry 
of  Australia,  the  diamond  fields  of  South  Africa,  the 
wheat  fields  of  Russia  and  India,  the  cotton  of  India, 
the  rice  of  China  and  the  coal  and  iron  of  England. 

Throughout  all  this  discussion  he  must  observe  the 
natural  routes  of  travel  between  trade  centers,  must 
see  how  Xaturc  has  fashioned  certain  harbors  so  that 
there  may  be  established  on  their  shores  termini  for 
routes  of  trade,  must  know  where  man  has  improved 
these  natural  routes  of  trade  ;  for  example,  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Erie,  Suez  and  Manchester  canals,  and, 
finally,  how  he  has  established  great  trunk  lines  of 
international  railways  along  the  lines  of  least  resistance. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  political  geography  of  the 
world,  he  must  learn  the  forms  of  government  and 
capitals  of  the  different  countries.  When  he  studies 
boundaries  of  different  countries  he  should  follow  along 
lines  suggested  in  the  first  chapter,  and  determine  the 
effects  of  certain  natural  boundaries  upon  the  life  of 
the  people.  With  fifth  grade  children  this  work  must 
be  given  largely  by  the  teacher.  Yet  the  children  will 
be  able  to  grasp  enough  of  it  to  help  them  to  compre- 
hend in  a  large  measure  why  the  chief  boundaries  of 
the  different  countries  are  in  certain  positions. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Frye' s   Complete  Geography.      Pages  1-27. 

THE   NATURAL    FORCES    THAT    HAVE    SHAPED    AND    ARE 
SHAPING   THE   EARTH   FOR   THE   HOME   OF   MAN. 

IN  taking  up  the  work  of  F rye's  second  book  we  may 
fairly  suppose  that  the  author  will  follow  the  same 
general  lines  of  thought  carried  forward  in  the  first 
book.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  real  unity  pervades  both 
texts.  This  unity  is  manifested  not  merely  in  the 
arrangement  of  material,  but  in  the  foundation  principle. 
Air.  Frye  has  written  a  second  book  which  is  adapted 
for  more  mature  minds  than  is  the  first.  A  few  addi- 
tional principles  are  brought  out,  but  in  the  main  he 
has  given  us  broader  and  more  definite  views  of  these 
principles  which  he  formerly  stated  in  the  simplest 
manner.  Possibly  the  purport  of  the  second  book  can 
be  illustrated  by  the  statement  that  the  author  uses  a 
larger  magnifying  glass  through  which  to  look  at  the 
world.  We  must  remember  that  a  greater  magnifying 
power  means  a  smaller  field  of  view.  This  point  is 
nicely  illustrated  by  the  different  way  in  which  Mr. 
Frye  treats  the  geography  of  the  United  States.  lie- 
now  breaks  that  country  into  sections,  each  section  in 
turn  passing  under  more  careful  scrutiny  of  the  more 
mature  pupil. 

54 


Natural  Forces  that  Ilai'c  Shaped  the  Ii  firth.       55 

While  in  the  second  book,  as  in  the  first,  Mr.  Fryc 
seeks  to  show  that  the  other  forms  of  geography  grow 
out  of,  and  are  dependent  upon,  physical  geography, 
he  nevertheless  recognizes  that  the  pupils  for  whom  he 
is  writing  are  more  mature.  In  the  first  book  there  are 
very  few  statements  of  bare  facts.  That  book  is  neither 
didactic  nor  expository.  In  the  second  book  this  plan 
is  changed.  The  author,  in  column  after  column  of 
the  first  twenty-six  pages,  gives  the  reader  definite, 
clean-cut  statements,  pregnant  with  truth.  His  style 
is  concise  and  explicit.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that 
the  pupil  is  now  mature  enough  to  grasp  these  truths, 
lersely  stated,  and  that  if  he  has  any  difficulty  it  is  the 
teacher's  business  to  lead  him  to  the  comprehension  of 
these  truths  by  processes  similar  to  those  used  by  the 
author  in  his  first  book.  Formerly  the  pupil  was  led 
to  discover  new  truths  by  means  of  investigation.  Now 
the  truth  is  presented  to  him  in  definite  form,  and  he 
must  reflect  upon  it,  using  it  as  a  basis  for  more  general 
conclusions.  This  is  the  essential  point  of  difference 
between  the  "  Primary  Geography  "  and  the  "  Complete 
Geography."  In  other  respects  the  books  are  similar. 

\Yhen  Mr.  Frye  introduced  the  primary  student  to 
geography  he  sought  to  establish,  by  observation  and 
inductive  reasoning,  several  great  geographic  principles. 
These  principles  he  used  in  all  his  subsequent  treatment 
of  the  subject,  nor  does  he  now  discard  them.  He, 
however,  recognizes  that  the  human  mind  is  ever 
attempting  to  reach  more  general  conclusions,  that  the 
work  of  the  greatest  philosopher  is  to  reduce  human 
knowledge  to  the  most  general  propositions  possible. 


5  6  I foi^'  to  Teach  the  Ptyc  GeograpJdcs. 

Of  this  universal  principle  he  now  wishes  to  make 
practical  application.  No  longer  is  it  sufficient  that 
the  child  shall  see  that  there  are  nine  great  geographic 
principles.  These  must  now  be  grouped,  in  order  that 
the  pupil  shall  appreciate  in  their  most  general  state- 
ment the  great  forces  which  are  at  work  transforming 
the  surface  of  the  earth  so  that  it  may  be  used  as  the 
abode  of  man.  Reduced  thus,  the  pupil  will  see  that 
there  are  but  three  forces  at  work  :  the  physical  forces, 
the  chemical  forces  and  the  life  forces.  Possibly  if 
the  author  were  to  write  a  third  book,  adapted  to  even 
more  mature  minds,  he  would  group  the  last  two  forces 
in  one  comprehensive  principle,  and  thus  specify  that 
in  the  fined  solution  of  this  question  the  student  of 
geography  need  consider  but  two  great  forces  in  active 
operation  upon  the  earth's  surface. 

In  Chapter  I  we  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
principal  lines  of  human  activity  are  agriculture,  man- 
ufacturing, mining  and  transportation  ;  and  we  also 
showed,  in  a  general  way,  h<>\v  physical  geography  con- 
tributes to  an  adequate  understanding  of  these  forms 
of  industry.  In  attempting  to  discuss  ho\v  the  eartli 
has  been,  and  is  being,  prepared  for  the  home  of  man, 
we  must  remember  the  chief  characteristics  of  man's 
abode  ;  wheat  arc  the  essentials  of  a  good  agricultural 
district;  what  makes  a  good  manufacturing  locality; 
under  what  conditions  can  mining  be  profitably  fol- 
lowed ;  how,  where  and  why  is  transportation  carried 
on  ;  where  do  people  live  and  why  do  they  live  in  those 
places  ?  Keeping  in  mind  these  questions,  we  shall  be 
able  to  see  more  clearly  how  the  physical,  chemical  and 


Natural  Forces  tJiat  I fai'c  Shaped  (lie  ]:,arlh.        57 

life  forces  arc  aiding  in  the  solution  of   these  problems 
which  arise  in  the  field  of  humanistic  geography. 

One  other  thought  must  preface  the  accurate  analysis 
of  this  portion  of  the  text.  Many  of  us  were  taught 
years  ago  that  the  earth  came  from  the  hand  of  its 
Maker  complete  in  every  detail,  and  just  as  it  is  at  the 
present  time.  When  our  minds  were  disabused  of  this 
idea  the  awakening  was  both  rude  and  painful.  We 
found  it  difficult  to  adjust  our  faith  to  the  idea  that  the 
world  was  never  completed,  is  not  now  completed  and 
never  will  be  completed.  Still,  science  left  us  no  alter- 
native, and  we  finally  were  forced  to  the  belief  that  the 
world  is  being  made  in  the  unending  present  ;  that  the 
forces  which  are  now  at  work  are  the  forces  which  have 
been  at  work  since  the  foundations  of  the  earth  were 
laid  ;  that  these  forces  are  as  busy  now  as  they  ever 
have  been,  and  that  the  changes  are  now  as  rapid  as 
were  the  average  changes  in  geologic  times.  The  child 
who  is  taught  by  the  more  modern  method  gets  a  truer 
appreciation  ot  the  element  of  time  in  the  construction 
of  the  earth.  Ravines,  gorges,  glacial  marks,  coral 
reefs,  subsidence  of  continents  and  the  formation  of 
plains  all  impress  upon  the  youthful  mind  that  in  the 
workshop  of  Nature  "A  thousand  years  are  but  as  yes- 
terday and  as  a  watch  in  the  night  when  it  is  past." 
Mr.  I'Yye  deserves  some  credit  tor  the  way  in  which 
he  has  brought  this  thought  to  the  school  children  of 
America.  Thereby,  in  the  study  of  the  onlv  science 
which  is  taught  all  school  children,  he  lavs  the  founda- 

o  j 

tion    lor  a   more   correct    knowledge   of    real    scientific 
truth. 


5  8  How  to  Teach  the  Frye  Geographies. 

The  physical  forces  which  Mr.  Frye  shows  as  busily 
at  work  in  fashioning  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  water, 
heat  and  wind.  Sometimes  these  act  separately,  but 
more  often  in  unison.  The  chemical  forces  are  seen 
at  work  in  the  decomposition  of  rock,  in  the  formation 
of  caverns,  in  the  production  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
in  the  purification  of  the  atmosphere.  The  life  forces 
operate  in  covering  banks  with  vegetation,  in  producing 
vegetable  mold,  in  building  coral  reefs  and  in  forming 
great  limestone  strata.  The  intimate  relation  existing 
between  the  chemical  and  life  forces  is  apparent  in  that 
nearly  every  change  brought  about  by  life  or  death  is 
a  chemical  change.  The  pupil  who  finishes  the  first 
twenty-seven  pages  of  this  book,  with  his  scientific 
knowledge  thus  clarified  and  systematized,  will  have 
laid  a  good  foundation  for  subsequent  study,  either  in 
the  laboratory  or  the  home.  Such  a  knowledge  will 
help  to  banish  superstition  and  enthrone  reason. 

Some  teachers  have  a  tendency  to  instruct  their 
pupils  relative  to  detached  and  separate  items  of  truth, 
each  of  itself  valuable,  but  taken  as  a  whole  entirely 
disconnected.  This  tendency  should  be  overcome. 
Here,  within  a  few  pages,  Mr.  Frye  sets  an  example. 
The  location  of  the  oceans,  the  causes  and  effects 
of  rainfall,  the  formation  of  springs  and  streams,  the 
transporting  power  of  rivers,  the  work  of  snow  and 
ice,  the  formation  of  river  systems  by  means  of  basins 
and  divides,  the  erosive  power  of  rivers,  the  building  of 
flood  plains  and  deltas,  the  shaping  of  coastal  plains 
and  lake  plains,  the  fashioning  of  shore  forms,  the 
movements  of  waves,  the  flow  of  ocean  currents  and 


Natural  Forces  t/iat  1  fare  Shaped  tlic  Earth.       59 

the  throbbing  of  tides  arc  all  set  forth  as  the  means 
whereby  Nature  is  using  water  in  shaping  the  earth  for 
the  home  of  man.  Moreover,  when  thus  viewed,  the 
intimate  relation  existing  between  these  various  forms 
is  abundantly  illustrated.  None  of  them  aet  alone,  all 
work  together. 

Similarly,  the  author  unifies  the  work  of  heat.  The 
simplicity  with  which  he  discusses  the  way  in  which  the 
earth  is  heated  and  lighted  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 
The  teacher  who  will  follow  the  text  closely,  supple- 
menting it  with  the  use  of  a  globe,  will  escape  many 
perplexing  questions  and  still  give  her  pupils  those 
portions  of  this  much  discussed  question  which  they 
are  able  to  understand,  and  upon  which  scientists  are 
agreed.  Here  the  author  lays  the  foundation  for 
mathematical  geography.  Enough  is  given  to  show 
how  the  location  of  the  tropics  and  Arctic  circle 
are  determined  by  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis 
and  the  movements  of  the  earth  about  the  sun.  The 
pupil  can  thus  see  for  himself  that  these  lines  are  not 
arbitrarily  determined.  The  reasons  why  heat  belts 
are  not  constant  and  isotherms  are  not  parallel  to  the 
equator  are  also  shown  to  depend  upon  the  physical 
structure  of  the  earth.  To  assist  the  pupil  in  gaining 
a  clearer  conception  of  some  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  mathematical  geography,  the  following  experi- 
ments are  suggested  :  — 

Drive  in  a  south  window  sill  a  long  vertical  nail  from 
which  the  head  has  been  cut.  Let  it  project  above  the 
sill  about  three  inches.  Require  the  class  to  measure 
the  shadow  cast  by  this  nail  at  noon  each  month  of  the 


60  How  to  Teach  tlic  Fryc  Geographies. 

school  year,  being  sure  to  obtain  the  accurate  length  of 
the  shadow  at  the  time  of  the  spring  and  autumn  equi- 
noxes and  the  winter  and  summer  solstices.  Preserve 
a  record  of  all  observations.  Let  the  class  draw  con- 
clusions with  reference  to  the  height  of  the  sun  at  the 
different  seasons  of  the  year.  Next  erect  in  a  south 
window  a  north  and  south  vertical  plain,  such  as  a 
sheet  of  stiff  paper.  Place  some  opaque  object,  as  the 
point  of  a  lead  pencil,  near  the  south  edge  of  this  plain  ; 
note  and  mark  the  direction  of  the  shadow  cast  by  this 
point  on  the  plain  at  noon.  Transfer  this  line,  showing 
the  direction  of  the  shadow,  to  a  blackboard  on  the 
west  side  of  the  room,  being  careful  to  preserve  the 
exact  inclination.  Leave  these  lines  on  the  blackboard 
throughout  the  season.  Represent  their  direction  at 
the  time  of  the  solstices  and  equinoxes  by  different  col- 
ored crayons.  Make  the  observations  every  time  you 
measure  the  length  of  the  sun's  shadow.  Draw  conclu- 
sions with  reference  to  the  direction  of  the  sun's  rays 
at  the  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Compare  these 
conclusions  with  those  reached  by  measuring  the  length 
of  the  shadow.  Let  pupils  determine  for  themselves 
the  relations  existing  between  the  height  of  the  sun 
and  the  seasons  of  the  year. 

Quite  properly  the  author  groups  in  very  close  rela- 
tion Winds  and  Rainfall.  Correctly  to  understand  this 
twofold  problem  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of 
the  laws  governing  the  mixture  of  warm  and  cold  air, 
the  general  direction  of  prevalent  winds  and  the  con- 
ditions governing  evaporation  and  precipitation.  These 
are  topics  which  are  usually  taught  in  the  department 


Natural  1'orccs  that  Have  Shaped  tlic  luirtli.       61 

of  physics.  If  a  teacher's  knowledge  on  these  points 
is  not  correct  and  accurate,  she  should  carefully  review 
the  subjects  as  discussed  in  a  first-class  text-book  on 
physics  before  trying  to  teach  this  portion  of  the 
geography.  Granted,  however,  that  her  knowledge  is 
sufficient,  Mr.  F rye's  presentation  of  these  points  is 
clear  enough  to  enable  pupils  to  get  correct  ideas  not 
only  of  facts,  but  of  general  laws.  This  part  of  the 
book  demands  that  the  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject must  be  more  extensive  than  that  covered  by  the 
words  of  the  text.  1'robably  no  other  phase  of  phys- 
ical geography  will  be  more  often  referred  to  or  more 
frequently  used  than  that  chapter  which  treats  of  winds 
and  rainfall.  Knowing  the  winds,  rainfall  and  relief 
form  of  any  continent,  the  pupil  will  more  and  more 
appreciate  the  fact  that  he  can  predicate,  without  study- 
ing the  exact  text,  the  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life,  not  only  native  to  any  given  locality,  but  which 
may  be  introduced  into  that  locality.  lie  will  see  that 
possibly  these  agencies  have  the  most  to  do  in  fashion- 
ing the  surface  of  the  earth  so  that  it  is  adapted  to 
agriculture,  manufacturing  and  transportation. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

J-'rvt~'s   Complete   Geography.     Pages  2~-QQ, 
THE   PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY   OF   THE   CONTINENTS. 

Ix  this  portion  of  the  book  the  principles  governing 
the  order  of  presentation  of  continents  ancl  allotment 
of  space  are  different  from  those  which  obtained  in  the 
corresponding  portion  of  the  smaller  geography.  The 
grand  divisions  are  no  longer  discussed  in  the  order  of 
their  increasing  complexity,  but  in  the  probable  order 
of  their  diminishing  importance  to  the  future  Ameri- 
can citizen.  Mr.  Frye  has  undoubtedly  been  led  to 
depart  from  the  scientific  arrangement  of  his  subject- 
matter  because  so  many  pupils  are  compelled  to  leave 
school  before  having  an  opportunity  to  finish  the 
"Complete  Geography."  Such  pupils  should  be  famil- 
iar with  the  geography  of  North  America,  South 
America  and  Europe,  even  though  the}-  have  no  oppor- 
tunity to  amplify  their  general  knowledge  of  the  other 
three  continents. 

Of  the  seventy-two  pages  devoted  to  the  physical 
features  of  the  continents  a  little  more  than  one  third 
are  devoted  to  North  America;  and  of  the  twenty-five 
pages  thus  used,  the  greater  number  are  given  to  the 
United  States.  Mr.  Frye  himself  states  in  a  footnote 
on  page  30  why  this  apportionment  of  space  is  made  : 

62 


The  Physical  Geography  of  the  Continents.         63 

—  "  Not  only  because  we  ought  to  know  the  geography 
of  our  own  country,  but  also  because  a  full  knowledge 
of  the  surface  and  resources  of  our  land  affords  the 
best  key  to  its  history."  The  full  import  of  this  state- 
ment should  be  grasped  by  the  teacher  of  geography 
and  the  teacher  of  history.  When  it  is  fully  compre- 
hended the  real  basis  for  the  correlation  of  these 
branches  will  be  understood. 

The  arrangement  of  the  text  in  the  "  Complete 
Geography  "  presupposes  that  the  pupil  has  completed 
the  "  Primary  Geography."  In  the  study  of  an}'  given 
portion  of  the  larger  book,  the  teacher  should,  therefore, 
make  use  of  the  pupil's  general  geographical  knowledge 
of  the  entire  world  ;  whereas,  in  using  the  smaller  book, 
the  teacher  is  always  confronted  with  the  fact  that 
there  is  ever  before  the  pupil  an  unexplored  region, 
which  is  either  a  land  of  terror  or  a  land  of  promise, 
according  to  the  way  it  is  approached.  The  attitude  of 
the  child's  mind  is  different  in  the  study  of  the  two 
books.  While  studying  the  smaller,  it  is  comparable 
to  that  of  an  explorer  who  traverses  an  unknown 
region  ;  while  studying  the  larger,  it  is  comparable  to 
that  of  the  prospective  settler  who  examines  a  locality 
to  determine  the  most  promising  site  for  a  settlement. 
With  the  "Primary  Geography"  each  pupil  is  a  LaSalle  ; 
with  the  "Complete  Geography"  he  is  a  Daniel  Boone. 
This  difference  is  recognized  by  Air.  Erye.  Note  the 
way  he  treats  the  physical  geography  ot  Xorth  America 
in  the  two  books.  Every  general  topic  discussed  in  the 
large  book  is  touched  upon  in  the  smaller.  There  is  a 
difference,  however.  In  the  primary  book  two  columns 


C>4  lloii1  to  Tench  the  Fryc  Geographies. 

are  devoted  to  the  Rocky  mountains  ;  in  the  complete 
text  these  mountains  with  their  subdivisions  are  given 
eighteen  larger  columns.  The  detail  is  filled  in.  An 
important  principle  governs  the  selection  of  such  detail. 
The  average  teacher  introduces  simply  the  description 
of  scenery.  Railway  folders,  photographs,  personal 
narrative  are  all  used  to  interest  the  class  and  make 
more  vivid  the  pupils'  mental  pictures.  Such  descrip- 
tions are  entertaining  and  possibly  have  their  place. 
Still  this  is  not  teaching  geography.  Observe  Mr. 
F rye's  first  sentence  in  his  "Complete  Geography":  — 
"This  book  describes  the  earth  as  our  home."  In  our 
last  chapter  we  showed  that  in  the  first  twenty-six 
pages  of  his  "Complete  Geography"  the  author  treats 
of  those  forces  which  have  shaped  and  are  shaping  the 
earth  for  the  home  of  man.  In  the  next  seventy-two 
pages  he  describes  that  home.  To  the  student  of  geog- 
raphy the  Willamette  valley  is  of  vastly  more  impor- 
tance than  the  Yellowstone  park,  simply  because  it  is 
the  home  of  a  thriving  people  rather  than  the  stopping 
place  of  an  occasional  tourist.  The  entertaining  descrip- 
tions of  snow-capped  mountains,  with  their  precipitous 
sides  and  deep  gorges,  are  not  the  material  with  which 
the  geography  lesson  or  text  should  be  filled.  This  is 
the  property  of  the  lecturer,  the  essayist  and  the  kodak 
fiend.  What  relation  do  the  mountains  in  question 
bear  to  mining?  I  low  do  thev  affect  the  winds  and 

J 

rainfall  of  neighboring  lowlands?  I  low  do  they  serve- 
as  a  barrier  to  commerce,  a  defense  to  a  nation,  a 
boundary  for  a  race?  These  are  the  questions  which 
should  engage  the  attention  of  teacher  and  pupil.  Such 


The  Physical  (icograpliy  of  the  Continents.          65 

is  the  detail  with  which,  in  his  "  Complete  Geography," 
I\lr.  Erye  fills  in  the  large  outline  drawn  in  his  "Primary 
Geography." 

The  pupil  who  is  engaged  with  this  portion  of  the 
book  is  supposed  to  have  attained  a  maturity  both 
as  to  study  and  age  which  enables  him  to  undertake 
the  solution  of  certain  geographical  problems.  Such 
mental  effort  will  not  only  test  his  real  knowledge  of 
principles,  but  will  help  develop  his  reasoning  powers. 
It  is  therefore  suggested  that  some  time  be  given  to 
such  questions  as  the  following:  — 

Suppose  the  Coast  Range  mountains  were  higher 
tli an  the  Sierra  Nevada,  what  effect  would  this  have 
upon  the  rainfall  of  central  California  ? 

Suppose  the  Coast  Range  and  Sierra  Nevada  moun- 
tains to  remain  at  their  present  altitudes,  but  the  former 
to  extend  unbroken  along  the  western  coast,  how  would 
the  interior  of  California  be  changed  ? 

If  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  were  lowered  to  the 
height  of  the  Coast  Range,  how  would  it  affect  the 
rainfall  of  California?  of  Nevada? 

\Yhat  effect  would  increasing  the  velocity  of  the 
lower  Mississippi  have  upon  the  character  of  the  soil 
deposited  along  its  banks  and  at  its  mouth  ? 

Compare  central  North  America  with  central  Eurasia. 
Suppose  a  body  of  water  equal  to  the  Great  Lakes  were 
placed  in  the  north  central  part  of  Eurasia,  how  would  it 
affect  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  that  continent  ? 

I  low  does  cutting  the  forests  around  the  head  waters 
of  a  river  affect  the  river  ?  Study  in  this  connection 
the  Hudson  and  Rhone. 


66  How  to  Teach  tltc  Fryc  Geographies. 

Account  for  the  rainfall  in  the  valley  of  the  Po. 

If  the  velocity  of  the  Nile  could  be  increased,  how 
would  it  affect  the  delta  at  the  mouth  of  that  river  ? 

Suppose  the  trade  winds  should  stop  blowing,  how 
would  that  affect  the  vegetation  of  South  America? 

Suppose  water  contracted  when  freezing,  how  would 
that  affect  the  rivers  and  lakes  in  the  temperate  zones  ? 

If  water  contracted  when  freezing,  would  rocks 
weather  more  or  less  rapidly  then  they  do  now  ? 

Suppose,  owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  ocean  bottom, 
the  Gulf  stream  were  deflected  so  that  it  flowed  straight 
east  from  Florida  to  Europe,  what  would  be  some  of 
the  probable  results  ? 

Suppose  the  axis  of  the  earth  were  inclined  15°,  30°, 
or  45°,  what  would  be  the  width  of  the  various  zones 
in  each  case  ? 

It  is  not  intended  that  the  above  serve  as  a  complete 
list  of  such  problems  nor  that  their  solution  shall  con- 
stitute a  regular  class  exercise.  Whenever  pupils  are 
called  upon  to  discuss  such  questions  they  should  be 
required  to  give  the  course  of  reasoning  by  which  they 
arrive  at  conclusions.  If,  starting  from  supposed  data, 
a  boy  can  reason  logically  and  arrive  at  the  proper 
conclusion,  it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  he  has  such  a 
knowledge  of  principles  that  his  conclusions  drawn 
from  the  examination  of  actual  data  will  be  sound. 
This  plan  of  work  tests  his  comprehension  of  under- 
lying geographical  principles. 

The  relief  maps  found  in  this  portion  of  the  book- 
should  be  studied  and  constantly  consulted  by  both 
teacher  and  pupil.  They  constitute  as  distinct  and  im- 


The  Physical  Gcografliy  of  t lie  Continents.         67 

portant  a  feature  as  do  the  words  of  the  text.  With- 
out them  pupils  would  often  fail  utterly  to  understand 
the  true  relation  physical  geography  bears  to  other 
branches  of  the  science.  By  omitting  all  names  and 
boundary  lines  from  these  maps  the  author  enables  the 
student  to  fix  his  entire  attention  upon  relief  forms. 
Kvery  line  and  every  piece  of  shading  contribute  to 
the  one  end  in  view.  As  location  of  places  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  use  the  relief  maps  intelligently  when 
studying  the  text  or  discussing  the  lesson,  the  author 
has  hit  upon  the  plan  of  printing  key  maps  on  the  oppo- 
site pages.  Many  teachers  use  these  maps,  the  relief 
and  the  key,  simply  in  connection  with  the  lesson  called 
"Map  Studies"  which  accompanies  each  relief  map. 
Such  use  of  these  maps  is  wrong.  True,  they  are  to 
be  used  with  the  map  studies,  but  they  are  also  to  be 
used  with  nearly  every  lesson  in  the  book.  They  con- 
stitute a  great  object  lesson  which  should  continually 
confront  both  pupil  and  teacher,  showing  ever  that 
political  geography,  commercial  geography  and  vital 
geography  grow  out  of,  and  are  dependent  upon,  phys- 
ical geography.  As  well  drop  Ilamlet  from  Shakes- 
peare's great  drama  as  omit  the  relief  maps  from 
Frye's  geographies. 

Permit  a  few  illustrations  :  — 

On  page  81  we  find  the  statement: — "The  Scandi- 
navian peninsula  is  in  the  path  of  the  moist  westerly 
winds.  The  steep  western  slopes  therefore  receive 
much  heavier  rainfall  than  the  lowland  on  the  east." 
Turn  to  the  relief  map  on  page  74  and  reinforce  this 
statement.  Next  direct  the  pupils'  attention  to  the 


68  Iloii'  to  TcacJi  tJic  Fiyc  GcograpJiics. 

relief  form  of  France  and  the  Netherlands.  Discuss 
the  prevalent  winds  and  permit  pupils  to  prophesy  the 
rainfall.  Now  turn  to  Lesson  84  and  see  if  the  prog- 
nostications are  correct. 

Read  on  page  65  concerning  the  Indus  and  Brahma- 
putra rivers.  Note  how  they  rush  through  narrow 
deep  valleys,  cutting  for  themselves  pathways  in  the 
solid  rock  and  breaking  down  that  which  impedes  their 
progress.  Turn  to  the  relief  maps  on  page  62  and  see 
how  such  a  condition  is  represented.  Observe  next 
the  Hoang-Ho  river  and  permit  the  pupils  to  draw 
their  own  conclusions  concerning  the  rapidity  of  this 
stream  and  the  nature  of  the  valley  through  which  it 
flows.  Let  them  next  read  a  paragraph  or  two  on  page 

69  and  see  if  their  reasoning  is  correct. 

Taught  thus,  pupils  will  soon  learn  that  a  relief  map 
is  an  open  page  from  which  can  be  read  as  easily  as 
from  print  much  of  the  geography  of  a  continent. 
The  ever  recurring  question  should  be,  "What  does 
the  relief  map  say  ?  "  The  ability  to  read  a  map  is  one 
of  the  greatest  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  study 
of  geography. 

We  learn  much  by  comparison.  It  is  upon  the  rela- 
tion that  one  item  of  knowledge  bears  to  other  items 
that  its  chief,  if  not  its  total,  value  depends.  It  is  not 
only  true  that  "  Xo  man  liveth  unto  himself  alone," 
but  it  is  equally  true  that  no  knowledge  standeth  by 
itself  alone.  Later  we  shall  apply  this  principle  to  the 
study  of  commercial  geography  ;  now  we  shall  use  it 
with  reference  to  physical  geography. 

On  studying  any  given  continent  be  sure  to  compare 


'The  Physical  (icography  of  t lie  Continents.         69 

it  with  continents  previously  studied.  These  compari- 
sons should  bring'  out  both  points  of  resemblance  and 
points  of  contrast.  When  all  continents  have  been 
considered  in  this  manner  take  up  in  succession  such 
features  as  highlands,  lowlands,  river  systems,  shore 
forms.  Make  each  feature  a  general  topic  and  study 
it  with  reference  to  all  continents.  This  plan  will  give 
the  pupils  a  series  of  cross-references  concerning  geo- 
graphical data. 

Let  us  illustrate.  Suppose  the  continents  have  been 
studied  in  turn  and  each  compared  with  the  others. 
Mow  shall  the  physical  geography  of  the  world  be 
reviewed  ?  To  go  back  over  the  book  in  the  order  it 
was  first  studied  will  awaken  little  interest  and  make 
nugatory  the  study  period  of  pupils.  ]>oys  and  girls 
will  think  they  know  it  all  and  will  not  attempt  to  pre- 
pare their  lessons.  If,  however,  the  teacher  assigns 
such  a  general  topic  as  The  Lowlands  of  the  World, 
then  subdivides  it  so  as  to  bring  out  their  location 
with  reference  to  continents,  zones  and  prevalent  winds, 
their  rainfalls,  their  drainage,  their  climate  and  their 
ability  or  inability  to  support  a  population,  she  will 
arouse  intense  interest  and  provoke  enthusiastic  study. 
For  the  benefit  of  the  slower  pupils  it  will  be  well  to 
give  definite  references  to  the  pages  where  these  topics 
are  treated.  The  average  pupil  will,  however,  do  most 
of  this  studying  by  simply  comparing  the  relief  maps, — 
"A  consummation  most  devoutly  to  be  wished."  A  final 
review  of  the  continents  conducted  along  these  lines 
rearranges  the  fragmentary  knowledge  a  pupil  has 
previously  gained,  so  that  he  no  longer  sees  each  con- 


/o  How  to  Teach  the  Fryc  Geographies. 

tincnt  by  itself,  but  rather  the  entire  earth  as  a  unit. 
Thus,  starting  in  the  "  Primary  Geography  "  with  the 
thought  that  the  earth  is  a  unit,  he  returns  at  the  con- 
clusion of  his  study  of  physical  geography  in  the  larger 
book  to  the  same  idea,  —  the  earth  is  a  unit.  Analy- 
sis, then  synthesis,  has  been  the  order.  The  circle  is 
complete.  The  unity  to  which  the  pupil  returns  is 
different  from  the  unity  from  which  he  started.  His 
new  unity  is  made  up  of  infinite  variety,  yet  so  harmon- 
ized that  there  is  no  confusion.  Thus  taught,  the 
child  need  take  but  one  more  step  to  come  face  to  face 
with  the  vitalizing  thought  that  there  is  a  Something 
which  plans  and  controls  world  forces  so  that  they  work 
together  in  complete  accord. 

Such  we  believe  to  be  the  general  thought  pervading 
this  portion  of  Frye's  "  Complete  Geography." 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

J''rvc' s    Complete    Gco^raphv.      J\i£cs  <)Q-fi<-)- 
VITAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

THE  general  principles  governing  the  corresponding 
portion  of  the  smaller  book,  as  described  in  Chapter 
IV,  will  be  found  to  obtain  in  the  work  now  before  us. 
As  the  pupils  are  two  years  older  than  when  they  began 
the  study  of  vital  geography,  the  author  brings  to  their 
consideration  some  new  truths  which  were  beyond  their 
comprehension  at  the  earlier  period. 

Teachers  and  pupils,  when  studying  the  races  of  men, 
plants  and  animals,  should  keep  constantly  in  mind  the 
fact  that  F rye's  "  Complete  Geography"  "describes  the 
earth  as  our  home." 

One  of  the  most  important  relations  that  physical 
geography  bears  to  racial  geography  is  set  forth  by 
Air.  Frye  in  the  statement: — "The  home  of  each 
race  is  bounded  on  nearly  all  sides  by  oceans,  deserts 
or  lofty  highlands."  The  author  follows  this  generali- 
zation with  several  illustrations,  then  emphasizes  it  in 
the  study  of  each  separate  race,  and  finally  clinches  the 
thought  in  his  Review  of  the  Races,  as  found  in  Les- 
son 104.  Much,  however,  is  left  for  the  teacher.  She 
must  bring  pupils  to  see  the  reason  which  underlies  this 
condition.  When  they  comprehend  that  the  primitive 

71 


"2  Huti1  to  Teach  tJic  Fryc  Geographies. 

races  could  not  cross  oceans,  deserts  or  lofty  highlands, 
they  will  have  mastered  a  truth  that  will  be  of  much 
subsequent  use  to  them.  Starting  from  this  fundamen- 
tal proposition,  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  as  the  races 
became  more  civilized  they  worked  their  way  through 
mountain  passes  into  new  valleys,  from  oasis  to  oasis 
across  barren  deserts  into  new  fertile  regions,  along 
dangerous  coasts  to  new  islands.  Tell  of  the  Teutonic 
invasion  of  central  Europe,  the  exploits  of  Hengist  and 
Ilorsa,  the  journeyings  of  Lief  Kricson.  Boys  and  girls 
will  quickly  see  that  the  means  of  communication  were 
still  so  difficult  that  settlements  planted  under  such 
circumstances  could  have  very  little  communication 
with  the  original  race.  In  time  there  would  thus 
spring  up  the  various  subdivisions  of  the  five  great 
races,  each  with  its  own  peculiarities,  but  each  in  turn 
having  certain  characteristics  which  plainly  designate 
the  parent  race  to  which  it  belongs.  Do  not  stop  here. 
Lead  the  pupil  to  take  one  more  step.  Having  taken 
it,  he  will  see  that  as  civilization  advanced  man  discov- 
ered means  of  communication,  no  matter  how  difficult 
the  barriers  which  separated  tribes,  nations  or  races. 
After  inventing  the  compass  he  was  no  longer  obliged  to 
skirt  the  coast,  but  could  boldly  venture  across  seas  and 
oceans.  Commerce  as  well  as  discovery  came  with  this 
invention.  Military  roads  were  the  precursors  of  tunnels, 
bridges  and  railways.  The  tendency  of  to-day  is  to  break 
down  barriers  and  to  bring  the  different  races  into  closer 
touch.  The  civilizing  influence  of  commerce,  made  pos- 
sible by  modern  invention,  is  a  principle  with  which  even 
grammar  grade  pupils  should  be  familiar. 


Vital  Geography.  73 

While  considering  the  effects  of  mountains,  oceans 
and  deserts  upon  the  organization  of  races  and  their 
subdivisions,  it  will  be  well  to  illustrate  with  examples 
and  story  the  relation  the  physical  features  of  the 
world  bear  to  the  military  and  political  history  of  the 
nations.  The  Alleghanies,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps, 
the  Dardanelles,  the  English  channel,  the  Danube, 
the  Nile,  Khyber  pass  and  the  Atlantic  ocean  have 
each  borne  an  important  part  in  determining  the  rise 
and  fall  of  dynasties  and  nations.  The  stories  of 
which  they  form  the  nuclei  are  more  fascinating  than 
romance  —  they  are  a  key  to  history. 

Coupled  closely  with  the  thought  relative  to  the 
effect  of  oceans,  deserts  and  lofty  highlands  upon  the 
separation  of  the  human  family  into  races  is  another  ; 
viz.,  the  original  homes  of  populous  races  were  in 
fertile  valleys  where  indigenous  food  grew  in  abun- 
dance ;  and,  even  to  the  present  day,  the  population 
of  the  world  is  located  in  the  lowlands  rather  than  the 
highlands.  The  teacher  who  cares  to  reinforce  what 
Air.  Frye  says  upon  this  subject  can  read  \vith  pleas- 
ure and  profit  certain  portions  of  Buckle's  "  History 
of  Civilization  in  England,"  especially  his  General 
Introduction. 

This  s:ime  chapter  from  Buckle  will  acquaint  the 
teacher  with  many  interesting  facts  bearing  upon  the 
relation  of  physical  geography,  including  climate,  to 
the  development  of  the  different  races.  Though  more 
recent  writers  dispute  some  of  Buckle's  conclusions, 
his  leading  premises  are  undoubtedly  correct.  Mr. 
Erye  would  have  pupils  understand  that  the  Caucasian 


74  How  to  TcacJi  the  Fryc  Geographies. 

is  the  race  whose  history  is  marked  by  achievement, 
whose  influence  makes  for  civilization.  Moreover,  he 
would  have  them  see  that  this  same  race  has  been  more 
fortunate  than  any  other  in  its  physical  environment. 

Instructors  who  teach  Air.  Frye's  chapter  upon  the 
Races  of  Men,  according  to  the  preceding  suggestions, 
will  lay  a  correct  foundation  for  the  subsequent  study 
of  history,  whether  their  pupils  pursue  that  line  of 
investigation  in  school  or  by  private  reading. 

In  teaching  the  chapters  upon  Plants  and  Animals,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
geographer  plants  and  animals  are  important  in  propor- 
tion as  they  minister  to  the  needs  of  men  or  influence 
geographical  conditions.  Plants  may  assist  man  by 
furnishing  him  with  food,  clothing,  fuel  or  building 
material  ;  may  hinder  him  by  the  luxuriance  of  vegeta- 
tion. They  always  exercise  a  direct  influence  upon 
rainfall  and  temperature.  Animals  help  man  by  assist- 
ing as  beasts  of  burden  or  by  furnishing  him  with  food, 
clothing  and  occasionally  fuel. 

The  first  question  in  studying  the  flora  of  any  region 
is  :  What  are  the  climatic  effects  of  the  vegetation  ? 
The  second  :  Does  this  vegetation  assist  or  retard 
civili/.ation  ?  Of  course  it  is  not  sufficient  to  answer 
these  questions  with  monosyllables.  They  are  intended 
to  open  up  lines  of  discussion.  Having  discovered  the 
general  effects  of  the  vegetation,  the  teacher  should 
next  lead  the  pupils  to  divide  the  flora  into  four  groups  ; 
viz.,  plants  which  furnish  man  food,  clothing,  fuel  or 
building  material.  Plants  that  do  not  readily  drop 
into  one  or  the  other  of  these  groups  should  not  be 


Vital  (icography.  75 

studied  in  detail  in  the  geography  class.  If  they  are 
in  sufficient  numbers  to  be  of  importance,  their  mass 
effect  has  been  considered  in  determining  the  climatic 
and  civilizing  effects  of  the  vegetation  of  the  region. 
Why  expect  pupils  to  memorize  forty  or  fifty  species 
of  plants  growing  in  the  tropics  ?  Let  them  see  that 
the  plant  universally  used  for  building  purposes  is  the 
bamboo  ;  and  that  this  plant  is  better  adapted  for  such 
use  than  is  any  other  kind  in  that  region.  Next  let 
them  discover  what  plants  furnish  the  little  clothing 
necessary  for  the  dwellers  within  the  tropics.  Follow 
this  with  the  names  of  eight  or  ten  plants  which  fur- 
nish food,  not  only  for  the  natives  of  that  region  but 
for  people  living  in  other  zones.  When  the  names  of 
these  three  kinds  of  plants  have  been  mastered  and 
their  characteristics  learned,  the  remaining  vegetation 
of  the  torrid  zone  can  be  grouped  in  one  great  mass 
and  studied  merely  in  its  effect  upon  climate  and 
civilization. 

If  pupils  study  Frye's  chapter  on  Plants  from  the 
above-described  standpoint,  they  will  reach  some  inter- 
esting and  valuable  generalizations.  Take,  for  instance, 
the  question  of  fuel.  They  will  see  that  within  the 
tropics  fuel  is  unnecessary  except  for  cooking  pur- 
poses; that  in  the  temperate  zones  it  must  be  used  for 
both  cooking  and  heating;  that  the  hard  woods  are 
best  adapted  for  this  purpose  ;  that  coal,  the  flora  of 
another  age,  is  here  used  for  the  same  purpose  ;  that 
in  the  polar  regions  the  fats  of  animals  are  the  only 
fuel  used. 

Ouite  similarly  the  student  of  geography  need  not 


76  How  to  TcacJi  the  Fiyc  Geographies. 

attempt  to  memorize  a  complete  list  of  the  animals 
native  to  any  given  zone.  It  is  sufficient  if  he  know 
what  animals  assist  man  either  as  beasts  of  burden  or 
by  furnishing  him  with  food  or  clothing.  It  is  not  im- 
portant that- he  have  impressed  upon  his  mind  the  fact 
that  great  herds  of  bison  once  roamed  over  the  Ameri- 
can prairies,  but  he  should  understand  that  great  herds 
of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  now  pasture  upon  those 
same  prairies.  When  studying  the  fauna  of  the  tropics 
the  average  pupil  is  swamped  by  the  great  number  of 
animals  whose  names  he  is  called  upon  to  memorize. 
Mr.  Frye  would  have  the  teacher  realize  that  the  pupil 
is  studying  the  description  of  the  earth  as  our  home; 
consequently,  there  is  no  need  of  requiring  geography 
pupils  to  consider  any  animal  unless  it  comes  in  direct 
relation  with  man.  Rather  than  commit  to  memory 
the  names  of  all  the  tropical  animals,  let  the  pupil  see, 
first,  what  animals  assist  man  as  beasts  of  burden.  In 
this  list  he  will  classify  the  elephant,  the  horse,  the 
camel,  the  ox  and  llama.  As  animals  which  furnish 
food  he  will  classify  the  camel,  the  goat  and  the  sheep, 
and  will  at  the  same  time  reject  the  carnivorous  ani- 
mals. Quickly  the  child  will  advance  to  the  generali- 
zation that  the  flesh  of  animals  is  not  a  good  diet  for 
people  living  in  the  tropics,  and  that  consequently  they 
are  not  inconvenienced  by  the  absence  of  herbivorous 
animals.  He  will,  however,  look  ahead  and  see  that 
such  animals  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  temperate 
zones  where  pasture  lands  are  plenty  and  animals  fur- 
nish a  necessary  article  of  food.  Only  a  limited  num- 
ber of  tropical  animals  will  be  grouped  in  the  third 


Vital  GcograpJiy.  77 

class — those  which  furnish  man  clothing.  This  is  in 
accordance  with  nature's  demands.  When  the  pupil  has 
thus  grouped  the  animals  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  teacher 
may  safely  omit  the  names  of  the  monkeys,  baboons, 
crocodiles,  boa-constrictor,  iguana,  jaguar,  tapir,  arma- 
dillo, hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  hyena,  giraffe  and 
scores  of  others  that  may  possibly  be  considered  at  a 
later  date  by  the  class  in  zoology. 

The  interrelation  existing  between  certain  vegetable 
and  animal  life  should  be  shown  ;  i.e.,  pasture  lands  and 
cud-chewing  animals,  hog  area  and  corn  belt,  sheep  and 
poorer  grazing  land.  It  will  be  interesting  to  note  how 
man  has  taken  advantage  of  this  principle  and  utilized 
certain  regions  which  were  naturally  unproductive. 

Finally,  as  pupils  combine  their  knowledge  of  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  life  they  should  be  led  to  see  that 
as  we  go  either  way  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles 
that  which  man  needs  for  food,  for  clothing,  for  fuel, 
for  building  material,  changes  with  the  changing  cli- 
mate, but  that  Nature  arranges  in  each  case  for  his 
new  needs.  If  necessary  supplies  are  not  provided 
outright,  the  conditions  are  such  that  man  can  produce 
that  which  is  required. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

J<'/-yc's   Complete   Geography.      l\v^cs  JIQ-I-J. 
HUMANISTIC   GEOGRAPHY. 

I\  this  portion  of  the  book  the  pupil  enters  upon 
the  study  of  that  part  of  geography  which  will  prove 
of  more  practical  benefit  to  him  than  any  other.  lie 
examines  the  humanistic  phase  of  the  subject.  He  is 
not  now  primarily  concerned  with  those  physical  forces 
which  have  shaped  the  earth  for  the  abode  of  man,  but 
rather  with  the  manner  in  which  man  utilizes  the 
resources  of  the  world  for  his  own  necessities  and 
enjoyment.  What  portions  of  the  globe  has  man  made 
to  bring  forth  and  blossom  as  the  rose  ?  Where  does 
lie  obtain  his  food,  his  clothing,  his  fuel,  his  building 
material  ?  Where  does  he  delve  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  earth  that  he  may  transform  his  civilization  into 
an  age  of  iron  ?  Wherefore  has  he  become  familiar 
with  the  trackless  deep  ?  To  what  purpose  has  he 
bound  state  to  state,  country  to  country,  with  double 
bands  of  steel  ?  Why  has  he  compelled  the  lightning 
to  carry  his  messages  across  continents  and  beneath 
oceans,  to  reproduce  in  distant  cities  the  lones  of  his 
own  voice  and  to  drive  sable-winged  Night  from  the 
streets  of  his  metropolis  ?  These  are  some  of  the 
questions  which  shall  engage  the  pupil's  attention. 

78 


Humanistic  Geography.  79 

From  their  consideration  he  should  come  forth  with  a 
working  knowledge  of  the  business  geography  of  the 
world. 

Mr.  Frye  precedes  the  study  of  the  products  of  the 
United  States  by  the  examination  of  the  temperature, 
winds  and  rainfall  of  the  country.  The  maps  with 
which  he  illustrates  this  portion  of  the  book  are  inval- 
uable—  they  are  an  epitome  of  the  text.  The  pupil 
must  either  photograph  them  upon  his  memory  or  turn 
to  the  original  again  and  again. 

In  discussing  the  various  products,  as  cotton,  wheat, 
corn,  the  author  uses  the  following  outline  :  The  phys- 
ical conditions  under  which  the  crop  flourishes  ;  the 
producing  area;  the  collecting  centers;  the  markets; 
domestic  routes  of  trade  ;  the  world's  producing  area 
and  collecting  centers  ;  the  world's  markets  and  routes 
of  trade.  Physical  conditions  and  producing  areas  arc- 
not  only  described  in  words  but  pictured  by  maps.  If 
the  country  produces  a  greater  amount  of  any  commod- 
ity than  it  needs  that  fact  is  noted  and  the  export 
market  is  named. 

To  illustrate  the  method  of  teaching  this  portion  of 
the  book  take  the  subject  Cotton.  Though  this  topic- 
is  discussed  in  Chapter  V,  we  again  outline  it  in  order 
to  illustrate  the  broader  way  any  given  question  is 
treated  in  the  "  Complete  Geography." 

The  first  question  is,  What  are  the  physical  condi- 
tions under  which  cotton  flourishes  ?  The  answer  is 
definitely  told  at  the  bottom  of  the  first  column  on 
page  i  30. 

Next,    What    are    the    cotton    areas    of    the    United 


80  I lii-i*.'  to  Teach  tJic  Fiyc  Geographies. 

States  ?  Turn  to  the  Rainfall  and  Climate  maps,,  and 
permit  the  pupils  to  discover  for  themselves  the  cotton 
belt.  Reinforce  their  conclusions  by  the  author's 
statement  as  found  at  the  top  of  the  second  column  on 
page  130.  Compare  both  these  findings  with  the 
Cotton  map  itself.  The  final  results  are  thus  reached 
by  three  processes  of  reasoning,  and  should  be  the 
same  in  each  case. 

The  pupils  are  now  ready  to  investigate  the  third 
topic  ;  viz.,  What  other  countries  produce  cotton  ?  In 
the  very  first  paragraph  of  Lesson  129  the  author 
directs  this  investigation.  Though  they  have  neither 
Rainfall  nor  Climate  maps  of  these  countries,  boys  and 
girls  will  quickly  see  that  the  physical  conditions  of 
the  foreign  cotton  areas  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
our  own  cotton  belt.  The  characteristics  of  cotton, 
the  methods  of  planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting  the 
crop  will  prove  interesting  themes  at  this  point. 

The  next  topic  is,  The  collecting  centers,  both  do- 
mestic and  foreign.  Xow  is  the  time  to  turn  to  the 
geography  of  the  Southern  States,  as  treated  on  pages 
147-150,  and  study  everything  bearing  upon  cotton. 
Later  we  should  revert  to  the  map  of  these  states  when 
studying  such  general  topics  as  sugar,  corn,  tobacco, 
forests,  iron  and  coal.  Quite  similarly  the  lessons 
upon  India  and  Egypt  should  be  read  and  the  maps 
examined,  that  clear,  distinct  and  accurate  ideas  of  the 
producing  areas  and  collecting  centers  in  these  coun- 
tries may  be  formed. 

Having  determined  the  centers  at  which  the  cotton 
crop  is  collected,  the  pupils  should  next  be  expected 


Humanistic  Geography.  81 

to  locate  the  markets;  i.e.,  the  places  where  the  cot- 
ton is  manufactured  into  cloth.  In  this  connection 
they  should  study  the  geography  of  New  England, 
as  described  on  pages  142-144,  and  of  England,  as 
described  on  pages  162  and  163  ;  or  rather  that  portion 
of  this  geography  which  relates  to  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  fabrics.  Pupils  may  wonder  why  cotton  cloth 
is  not  manufactured  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
cotton  fields.  Teachers  should  be  ready  with  an  inter- 
esting bit  of  history,  giving  the  pupils  an  opportunity 
to  see  that  when  the  United  States  embarked  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  the  labor  of  the  South  was  per- 
formed by  slaves  who  had  not  the  intellectual  training 
necessary  for  skilled  laborers.  The  raw  cotton  was 
therefore  sent  to  a  region  where  it  could  be  manufac- 
tured by  white  labor.  Cotton  mills  were  established 
before  steam  was  applied  to  manufacturing.  Water 
power  was  used  to  drive  the  machinery  of  these  mills. 
The  best  water  power  in  those  regions  of  the  North 
which  were  then  settled  was  in  New  England.  The 
mills  were  therefore  established  in  that  locality,  and 
the  most  intelligent  labor  \vas  directed  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  fabrics.  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery 
in  the  South,  labor  has  been  looked  upon  differently, 
and  there  are  many  skilled  workmen,  both  black  and 
white.  Steam  is  supplanting  water  as  a  motive  power. 
A  result  of  these  changes  is  the  erection  of  many  cot- 
ton mills  in  the  South  and  the  manufacture  of  the  fin- 
ished product  in  the  very  region  where  the  cotton  is 
grown.  By  this  means  the  cost  of  shipping  the  raw 
cotton  to  New  England  and  the  manufactured  cotton 


82  How  to  Teack  the  Fryc  Geographies. 

back  to  the  South  is  saved,  and  the  mills  of  Georgia 
have  this  important  advantage  over  the  mills  of  Massa- 
chusetts. 

The  leading  manufacturing  districts  are  a  long  dis- 
tance from  the  cotton  raising  districts.  This  gives  rise 
to  the  next  topic,  —  the  routes  of  trade.  Turn  to  the 
chapter  upon  Highways  of  Trade,  and  learn  how  New 
Orleans,  Galveston,  Calcutta,  Bombay  and  Alexandria 
are  connected  with  Boston  and  Liverpool. 

Lastly,  determine  the  markets  for  the  manufactured 
cotton  cloth  and  the  routes  by  which  it  is  shipped  to 
the  consumers. 

Pupils  who  study  the  subject  of  cotton  according  to 
the  above  plan  will  acquire  a  knowledge  which,  while 
broad  and  comprehensive,  is,  at  the  same  time,  accurate 
and  unified.  The  other  general  products  can  be  studied 
in  a  similar  way.  Even  grammar  grade  pupils  will  see 
that  most  of  the  world's  business  transactions  are  con- 
cerning the  production  or  transportation  of  food,  cloth- 
ing, fuel  and  building  material. 

The  plan  for  studying  sectional  maps  indicated  in 
the  discussion  of  cotton  should  be  followed  in  the  inves- 
tigation of  other  products  or  industries.  The  map  and 
description  of  New  England  will  be  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  cotton,  wool,  hides,  forests,  fisheries  and 
building  material  ;  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  with 
coal,  iron,  building  material  and  tobacco  ;  the  Southern 
states  with  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  corn,  hogs, 
coal  and  iron ;  the  Central  states  with  wheat,  corn, 
oats,  barley,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  coal  and  iron  ;  the 
Western  states  with  fruits,  wheat,  grazing  and  the 


Humanistic  Geography.  83 

precious  metals.  Each  of  these  products  has  a  general 
topic  devoted  to  it.  When  investigating  that  topic, 
study  in  connection  therewith  the  sectional  map  or 
maps  which  throw  light  upon  it.  Each  map  will  thus 
he  studied  as  many  times  as  there  are  important  com- 
modities produced  in  that  region. 

This  plan  of  studying  the  sectional  maps  has  many 
advantages  :  it  does  away  with  the  tediousness  usually 
attendant  upon  this  portion  of  the  geography  ;  it  fur- 
nishes definite  aim  for  the  pupil's  research,  and  it 
removes  vagueness  and  indistinctness  with  reference 
to  localities  referred  to  in  the  general  discussion  of 
the  subject  in  hand. 

When  studying  the  product  maps  pupils  should  be 
taught  to  superimpose  one  map  upon  the  others,  thus 
determining  the  variety  of  resources  incident  to  any 
section.  This  work  will  be  much  more  satisfactory 
than  when  first  attempted  while  studying  the  "  Primary 
Geography."  This  time  pupils  will  be  able  to  draw 
valuable  conclusions  concerning  the  advantages  aris- 
ing from  a  diversity  of  industries. 

Pupils  will  be  much  interested  in  comparing  different 
regions  in  this  respect.  To  illustrate  :  Notice  that  the 
only  product  map  which  covers  certain  sections  of 
Xorth  Dakota  is  the  Wheat  map,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  Southern  Michigan  is  covered  by  the  following 
maps:  Wheat,  Corn,  Oats,  Forests,  Emits,  Beef  Cattle, 
1  )airy  Products,  Sheep  and  Coal.  If  the  wheat  crop  of 
Xorth  Dakota  is  ruined,  farmers  have  nothing  to  fall 
hack  upon  ;  whereas,  if  the  wheat  crop  of  Southern 
Michigan  is  injured  the  citizens  have  many  other 


84  1 1 uic  to  TcacJi  the  Frj'c  Geographies, 

sources  of  revenue.  In  Dakota  the  prosperity  of  mer- 
chants, bankers,  railroad  people,  in  fact  the  entire  pop- 
ulation, depends,  directly  or  indirectly,  upon  the  wheat 
crop.  Though  the  people  of  Southern  Michigan  may 
raise  quantities  of  wheat,  their  industries  are  so  diver- 
sified that  the  population  at  large  may  still  have  a  pros- 
perous year,  even  though  the  wheat  crop  is  ruined 
entirely.  Another  illustration  :  Central  Florida  is  cov- 
ered by  the  Fruit  map  and  a  light  shading  of  the  For- 
est map.  This  shows  that  the  country  depends  chiefly 
upon  fruits  for  a  source  of  revenue.  A  killing  frost 
not  only  destroys  the  orange  crop,  but  the  trees  as 
well  and  ruins  the  prosperity  of  the  region  for  years 
to  come.  It  is  interesting  to  note  further  how  this 
fruit  industry  depends  upon  the  development  of  rail- 
roads. Not  until  the  invention  of  the  refrigerator  car 
were  fruit  growers  able  to  have  other  than  a  local,  and 
consequently  limited,  market  for  their  product.  Fruits 
were  too  perishable  for  ordinary  transportation.  With 
the  invention  of  such  cars  and  the  organization  of 
through  fast  freights  perishable  fruits  are  shipped  from 
the  Gulf  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  from  the  Pacific  to 
the  Atlantic,  thus  giving  to  the  fruit  growers  a  market 
in  the  farthest  corner  of  the  country.  The  increasing 
production  keeps  pace  with  the  developing  market. 

The  interrelation  of  certain  industries  is  nicely  illus- 
trated by  the  Product  maps.  The  Corn  and  Hog  maps 
cover  practically  the  same  areas  ;  in  fact,  the  Beef  Cat- 
tle map  differs  but  little  from  either  of  the  two  men- 
tioned. No  other  Cereal  map  so  nearly  corresponds  in 
area  to  the  Hog  and  Cattle  maps.  This  leads  to  the 


Humanistic  Geography.  85 

inference  that  corn  is  more  extensively  used  as  a  food 
for  such  animals  than  is  any  other  grain.  A  comparison 
of  the  Dairy  Products  and  Beef  Cattle  maps  will  sug- 
gest to  the  wide-awake  teacher  two  interesting  thoughts. 
The  cheaper  lands  of  the  West  make  possible  the  pas- 
turing of  large  herds  of  cattle.  Such  herds  are  so  far 
removed  from  the  centers  of  population  that  it  is  not 
profitable  to  ship  milk  or  make  butter.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  farming  lands  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania 
and  Ohio  are  so  valuable  that  they  cannot  be  used  for 
pasturing  great  herds  of  cattle,  and  the  proximity  of 
these  sections  to  the  centers  of  population  makes  profit- 
able the  shipment  of  dairy  products.  Thus  while  the 
Beef  Cattle  map  covers  every  part  described  in  the 
Dairy  Products  map,  and  more  too,  the  darker  portion 
of  the  former  map  is  different  from  the  darker  portion 
of  the  latter.  The  maps  of  Coal,  Iron,  and  Iron  and 
Steel  Manufacture  speak  volumes  to  one  who  knows 
how  coal  is  used  in  smelting  iron  ore  and  how  iron  is 
transformed  into  steel.  Unless  teachers  are  informed 
on  such  topics  they  should  not  attempt  to  teach  Sec- 
tions 140  and  141.  The  advantages  incident  to  finding 
iron  and  coal  in  close  proximity  are  the  underlying 
cause  for  the  wonderful  development  of  such  cities 
as  Chattanooga  and  Birmingham.  Moreover,  the  sep- 
aration of  the  Michigan  iron  mines  from  the  coal  fields 
of  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Pennsylvania  makes  possible 
the  most  wonderful  inland  carrying  trade  in  the  world. 
If,  in  connection  with  the  various  things  raised  or 
manufactured  in  the  United  States,  the  pupil  is  led  to 
take  a  world-wide  view,  as  he  did  in  studying  cotton,  he 


S6  Hou  to  TcacJi  tlie  Fryc  Geographies. 

will  be  surprised  to  find  how  little  of  the  world's  busi- 
ness there  remains  for  him  to  examine  after  having 
completed  the  geography  of  the  United  States.  This 
country  of  ours  is  wonderful  in  its  natural  resources  ; 
its  people  are  unsurpassed  in  their  activities.  With  its 
new  possessions  almost  every  line  of  enterprise  is  repre- 
sented. The  mature  pupil  thus  makes  the  United  States 
the  center  from  which  he  studies  the  industries  of  the 
world.  How  are  these  \vorld  enterprises  related  to  his 
own  country  ?  What  are  the  business  relations  uniting 
his  native  land  to  the  world  at  large  ?  The  final  thought 
crowning  his  three  years'  study  of  geography  is  thus 
the  Interdependence  of  Nations.  Such  a  conception 
enriches  his  understanding,  broadens  his  patriotism 
and  makes  more  generous  his  humanity. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


FRYE'S    GEOGRAPHIES 


Primary  Geography.  Small  quarto.  Cloth.  127  pages.  Fully 
illustrated.  For  introduction,  60  cents. 

Elements  of  Geography.  Small  quarto.  Cloth.  164  pages.  Fully 
illustrated.  For  introduction,  65  cents. 

Complete  Geography.  Large  quarto.  184  pages.  Cloth.  Profusely 
illustrated.  With  an  Appendix  of  2.\  pages  of  Reference  Maps. 
For  introduction,  81.25. 

Brooks  and  Brook  Basins.  First  Steps  in  Geography — Nature 
Studies.  Cloth,  ny  pages.  Illustrated.  For  introduction, 

58  cents. 

The  Child  and  Nature.  Geography  Teaching  with  Sand  Modelling. 
A  Manual  for  Teachers.  Cloth.  210  pages.  Illustrated.  For 
introduction,  So  cents. 

Teachers'  Manual.     To  accompany  1' rye's  Geographies.     i2mo.     Flexible  cloth, 
i vo  pages.      Illustrated.      For  introduction,  50  cents. 

MR.  FRYF.'S  text-books  on  geography  are  universally 
recognized  as  representing  an  advance  movement  in  edu- 
cation, but  their  crowning  merit  lies  in  the  fact  that  they 
not  only  can  secure  better  results  than  other  books,  but  can 
make  the  pupils'  work  more  interesting  and  the  teacher's 
work  lighter. 

The  success  of  this  author's  books  shows  that  they  are 
in  line  with  the  best  methods  of  teaching  and  that  there  is 
a  deep  and  widespread  demand  for  the  best  ideas,  methods, 
and  books.  At  the  beginning,  it  requires  perhaps  a  little 
more  skill  and  pains  to  teach  the  pupils  to  get  ideas  instead 
of  words  from  their  text-books,  but  that  is  of  course  the 
only  right  way,  and  in  a  little  time  it  becomes  the  easier 
and  more  pleasant. 

GINN    &  COMPANY,   Publishers, 

Boston.  New  York.  Chicago.  Atlanta.  Dallas. 


FRYE'S   GEOGRAPHIES 


FRYE'S  ELEMENTS  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Small  4to.  Cloth. 
164  pages.  Fully  illustrated.  For  introduction,  65  cents. 

FRYE'S  COMPLETE  GEOGRAPHY.  With  an  Appendix  con 
taining  24  pages  of  Reference  Maps.  Large  410.  Cloth.  184 
pages.  Profusely  illustrated.  For  introduction,  $1.25. 

FRYE'S  GEOGRAPHIES  are  universally  recognized  as  rep- 
resenting an  advance  movement  in  education,  but  their 
crowning  merit  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  not  only  can 
secure  better  results  than  other  books,  but  can  make  the 
pupils'  work  more  interesting  and  the  teacher's  work 
lighter. 

The  success  of  Frye's  geographies,  which  is  literally 
unparalleled  in  the  history  of  text-book  publishing,  shows 
that  there  is  a  deep  and  widespread  demand  for  the  best 
ideas,  methods,  and  books.  It  goes  without  saying,  that, 
at  the  beginning,  it  requires  a  little  more  skill  and  pains 
to  teach  the  pupils  to  get  ideas  instead  of  words  from 
their  text-books  ;  but  that  is  of  course  the  only  right  way, 
and  in  a  little  time  it  becomes  the  easier  and  more 
pleasant. 

L.  H.  Jones,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio: 

I  am  delighted  with  Frye's  Complete  Geography  ;  it  is  thoroughly 
modern  and  in  line  with  the  best  methods  of  teaching. 

F.  F.  Murdock,  Principal  of  State  Arormal  School,  A'orth  Adams,  Mass, 
I  make  no  reservation  when  I  say  that  Frye's  Complete  is  the  best 
grammar-school  geography  I  have  ever  used. 

J.  R.  Miller,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Jjisf  Rapids,  I\Iich. 

I  have  examined  a  number  of  the  best  geographies  published  and 
after  a  very  careful  comparison  I  have  recommended  Frye's  geographies 
(Flements  and  Complete)  as  the  best  on  the  market. 


GINN   &  COMPANY,  Publishers, 

Boston.  New  York.  Chicago.          Atlanta.  Dallas. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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